Introduction and Genreal Aspects: Khajuraho Temples

 My recent visit to Khajuraho allowed me to explore the Chandella’s royal family’s unfettered faith in the lords, motivation, encouragement to art, history, culture, architecture and sculptors towards building of temples. This blog delves upon the history of chandella kings, the temple design philosophy, nagara architecture, the Vastu principles, art and sculptures towards the construction of temples. 

Khajuraho: Witnessing Humanity’s Spectrum in Stone

Kandarya Mahadev and Devi Jagdambi Temple

Step into a world where human passion is etched in stone and the boundaries between the sacred and the sensual beautifully blur. The Khajuraho temples are not just architectural marvels; they are India's profound artistic statement to the world. Witness firsthand the extraordinary craftsmanship and the captivating narrative of life, love, and joy brought forth by the ingenious Chandela Rajputs.

The Khajuraho Group of Monuments in Chhatarpur district, Madhya Pradesh, India, comprises Hindu and Jain temples. Famous for their Nagara-style architecture and some erotic sculptures, they were built by the Chandela dynasty between 885 and 1000 CE. The Kandariya Mahadeva Temple stands out for its intricate sculptures and artistic expression. The site was rediscovered in 1838 by British engineer Captain T.S. Burt was recognised as a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1986 for its outstanding architecture and testimony to the Chandela civilisation.

The name Khajuraho derives from the Sanskrit words for date palm ("kharjura") and bearer ("vahaka"). Local legends say rediscovered temples lacked the two golden date-palm trees that once served as their gate. while Desai suggests "scorpion bearer" as a symbolic name for Shiva.

History 

The Chandela dynasty built the Khajuraho monuments primarily during the reigns of kings Yashovarman (Lakshmana Temple) and Dhanga (Vishvanatha temple), starting soon after their rise to power in Bundelkhand. The largest surviving temple, Kandariya Mahadeva, was built during King Vidyadhara's reign. Inscriptions suggest completion of many surviving temples between 970 and 1030 CE, with others following. 

Lakshmana Temple

The first documented mention of Khajuraho was in 641 by Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who noted several dozen inactive Buddhist monasteries and a dozen Hindu temples. In 1022 CE, Persian historian Abu Rihan-al-Biruni described Khajuraho as the capital of Jajahuti during Mahmud of Ghazni's unsuccessful raid. Khajuraho remained in active use until the late 12th century, after which the Delhi Sultanate attacked in the 13th century. Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta visited in the 14th century, noting "mutilated" idols and yogis.

While India has over 2 million Hindu temples reflecting diverse culture, temple architecture, defined by Shilpa Shastra, mainly follows Nagara (North), Dravida (South), and Vesara (Mixed) styles. The Nagara style features a Garbhagriha (sanctum), Shikhara (curvilinear tower), and Mandapa (entrance hall), evolving from single to multiple Shikharas with the Garbhagriha under the tallest tower. Khajuraho temples exemplify the Nagara style with a sanctum, antarala, mahamandapa, ardha mandapa, mandapa, and pradakshina-path.

Vishwanath Temple

Khajuraho, known for ornate temples, was built by Chandela rulers between 900 and 1130 CE. First mentioned by Abu Rayhan al-Biruni (1002 CE) and Ibn Batuta (1335 CE). 

The Chandela Empire, ruling central India from the 10th to 14th centuries, was known for its patronage of art and architecture, with rulers inclined towards Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism. Ancient Kharjjura-vahaka represents distinct art and temple architecture, recalling the Chandella rule's richness.

Khajuraho was the Chandella rulers' principal seat, adorned with tanks and numerous temples of sculptural and architectural splendour. Historical records mention 85 temples spread over 20 sq km by the 12th century, of which about 25 survive, covering 6 sq km. in various states of preservation. The majority of the temples are built from fine-grained sandstone, in contrast to the granite used for the Chausath-Yogini, Brahma, and Mahadeva.

Yasovarman (c. 954 AD) built the ornate Lakshmana (Vishnu) temple, showcasing Chandella prestige. The Visvanatha, Parsvanatha, and Vaidyanatha temples date to his successor, King Dhanga. The Jagadambi and Chitragupta temples are notable in the western group. The largest temple, Kandariya Mahadeva, is attributed to King Ganda (1017-29 AD). Later, smaller but elaborate temples include Vamana, Adinatha, Javari, Chaturbhuj, and Duladeo.

From the 13th to 18th centuries, the region was under Muslim rule, leading to some temple desecration and neglect. Khajuraho's isolation helped protect the temples from further destruction, as vegetation and forests overgrew on them. Local Hindus led British surveyor T.S. Burt to the rediscovery of the temples in the 1830s. Alexander Cunningham later reported their continued secret use by yogis, with Hindu pilgrimages during Shivaratri. The earliest drawings of the temples were prepared by F.C. Maisey in 1852.

Chitragupta Temple

Khajuraho's Lunar Legend

Khajuraho's temples, built in just a century, are steeped in a captivating legend. The legend begins far away in Kashi (Varanasi). On an enchanted moonlight night, a Brahmin priest's beautiful daughter, the lovely Hemvati was seduced by Chandrama, the Moon God, as she bathed in a forest pond. She traveled to Khajuraho where she gave birth to son, Chandravarman, later founded the Chandela dynasty, who, the myth states, built 85 temples to atone for his mother’s "sin."

Years later, Hemwati appeared to her son in a dream, urging him to build temples depicting the full spectrum of human passions. This request has two interpretations: either the carvings served as a reminder of worldly desires' fleeting nature, leading to spiritual emptiness, or they reflected Tantrism, where embracing earthly desires could lead to liberation. Regardless, Hemwati's dream inspired Khajuraho's unique artistic expression.

Temple Design Philosophy 

Central India's Vindhya mountain (Kalinjar) temple sites, centered in Khajuraho, embody the Hindu tradition of building where deities like Shiva were believed to pray. Characteristically located near water bodies (currently Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar/Ninora Tal, Khudar Nadi; legendarily 64, with 56 identified), most temples (except Chaturbhuja) face sunrise.

Sunrise orientation, a significant symbolic element in Hindu temple design, is observed in all these temples except Chaturbhuja. Their layout integrates masculine/feminine deities, symbolizing interdependence, and artworks depict Hinduism's four life goals: dharma, kama, artha, moksha. Of the surviving temples, six are Shaiva, eight Vaishnava, one Ganesha, one Surya, and three Jain; some ruins lack definitive deity assignments.  

The site's overall design adheres to the Hindu mandala principle (squares and circles), with the territory laid out in three triangles forming a pentagon, interpreted by scholars as symbolizing tri-lokinatha (three realms) and panch-bhuteshvara (five cosmic substances). Shiva, the destroyer and recycler, controlling cosmic dance, is central.

The temples feature intricate carvings, with erotic sculptures comprising under 10% and proportionally balanced within the broader depiction of human life and Hindu values, often requiring close observation. The art expresses the Āgamas' three concepts: Avyakta (unmanifested), Avyaktavyakta (partially manifested), and Vyakta (manifested), reflecting cosmology, philosophy, and practices.

Intricate carvings

The Beejamandal temple is under excavation, identified with the Grahpati Kokalla inscription's Vaidyanath temple. The Matangeshvara temple remains an active worship site, featuring a large lingam on a wide platform. The most visited, Kandariya Mahadev, covers 6,500 sq ft with a 116 ft spire.

Bijamandala ruins

Khajuraho: A Late 10th Century Synthesis

Representing a near-equal presence of Vaishnavism, Shaivism, and Jainism, the Khajuraho temples were likely built and used concurrently in the late 10th century, a testament to Hindu and Jain tolerance according to Will Durant. Their layout features major temples surrounded by smaller ones in a grid pattern, also common in Hindu temple complexes like Angkor Wat and those in Parambaran and South India. The largest Shiva temple is Kandarya Mahadeva, and the largest Vaishnava group includes Chaturbhuja and Ramachandra.

Nagara Architecture 

Nagara style temple architecture, originating around the 5th century AD in northern and central India, is a significant part of ancient India's cultural and architectural heritage. Rooted in Hinduism, these temples are distinguished by their towering shikharas (spires), intricate carvings, and symbolic designs that blend art with divinity. The term "Nagara" itself means "city," highlighting its connection to urban architectural principles.

Key Characteristics and Layout

Nagara temples typically follow a distinct layout reflecting cosmic order and spiritual journeys:

• Vastu Purusha Mandala: The temple's design is aligned with this sacred cosmic diagram, ensuring harmony with universal forces and establishing the temple as a microcosm of the universe.

• Garbhagriha (Sanctum Sanctorum): The innermost, holiest chamber, often square, where the principal deity resides. It symbolizes the womb of creation.

• Pradakshina Patha (Circumambulation Path): A clockwise path around the garbhagriha for devotees to show respect and seek blessings.

• Vimana (Tower): The main spire, or shikhara, symbolizes Mount Meru, the abode of the gods, and represents the ascent from the earthly to the celestial realm.

• Mandapa (Congregation Hall): A communal space for rituals and gatherings, supported by intricately carved pillars depicting deities and mythological narratives.

• Antarala (Vestibule): A transitional space between the garbhagriha and the mandapa, symbolizing the journey from the material to the divine.

• Ardha-mandapa (Entrance Porch): The entrance, often featuring ornate pillars and carvings, serving as a visual prelude to the temple's interior.

• Peripheral Structures: Smaller shrines and subsidiary structures often surround the main complex, honoring various deities and contributing to the overall design.

Architecture of the temples

Hindu temple architecture commonly utilises the Manduka mandala, an 8x8 grid plan. The central Brahma pada houses the primary deity, encircled by Devika padas for other gods. The outer Paisachikas padas symbolise negative aspects, while the eastern edge features Surya and Indra representing light and hope. The Manusha padas represent the human journey of choice towards the core, where the deep saffron circle embodies the formless Universal One (Purusa). This design, ranging from simple to complex grids, universally incorporates circles and squares in layout and spire. Concentric turning squares in spires above the Brahma pada reflect structural design and Hindu philosophy (Vastu Shastras). The main deity and the Purusa are located at the centre. The vastu-purusha-mandala, combining mandala (circle), purusha (universal essence), and vastu (dwelling), is fundamental to Hindu temple design, as seen in Khajuraho.

Khajuraho temples' striking visual appeal arises from intricate mathematical and geometric precision that embodies cosmic philosophy. Their architectural layout symbolically mirrors the universe, from the towering Shikhara to the Mandala ceilings, with a central focus above the sanctum's deity representing cosmic energy. East-facing entrances are common.

Built on the 8x8 Manduka Vastu purusha mandala grid, Khajuraho represents the zenith of northern Indian temple design. Sandstone structures on ornate platforms (jagati) feature Nagara-style Shikhara (symbolising Mount Kailasa) atop the sanctum (garbhagriha), which enshrines the Purusha and main deity within a symmetrical, layered framework derived from Hindu principles.

The temples present a spatial hierarchy of interconnected areas: entrance porch (ardha-mandapa), main hall (mandapa), vestibule (antarala), and sanctum. Larger examples include transepts and circumambulatory paths. Pillared halls (mandapas) serve pilgrims. The Shikhara (Vimana) crowns the vastu-purusha-mandala, embellished with smaller shikharas and linked to sacred mountains.

A central ambulatory path (pradakshina) encircles the deity and Purusa. Pillars, walls, and ceilings are richly carved with depictions of kama, artha, dharma, and moksha. The interplay of the mandala (circle) and vastu-purusha-mandala (square) symbolises the earthly and divine.

The temples reflect the harmonious coexistence of different faiths under Chandela rule. The sculptures showcase an extraordinary blend of religious and secular themes. 

Construction 

Constructed from sandstone on near-invisible granite foundations, the mortar-free structures utilise precise mortise and tenon joints held by gravity. Megalithic columns and architraves weighed up to 20 tonnes. Ageing more rapidly, the 19th-century brick and mortar repairs have darkened, creating a visible contrast with the temple's original materials.

The Khajuraho and Kalinjar region's high-quality, precisely carvable sandstone enabled the intricate details seen in surviving sculptures (hair strands, nails, jewellery). Recreations for the "Lost Worlds" show suggested the immense labour involved, with a small sculpture taking 60 days. Experiments quarrying limestone indicated that building these temples would have required hundreds of skilled sculptors.

Art and Sculpture 

The seamless unity of sculpture and architecture defines Khajuraho. Symmetrically placed mandapas and diverse artwork, though individually distinct, showcase this integration. 

Despite erotic art comprising about 10% (often smaller, interior carvings), the exteriors captivate with twisting, bejewelled apsaras, rows of griffins, and detailed maithunas. These dynamic stone surfaces, animated by depictions of full-figured apsaras engaged in activities such as applying cosmetics, washing their hair, playing games, dancing, and the continuous act of adjusting their girdles, alongside scenes of daily life, vibrantly express Hindu beliefs and human emotions. 

The erotic depictions are attributed by scholars to either Tantric practices or Hinduism's acceptance of kama.

I will present the Western group of temples in my next blog.