The Empire of Stone: How Vijayanagara Built a Wonder—And Why It Fell
The Empire of Stone: How Vijayanagara Built a Wonder—And Why It Fell
“What if the legends were true? What if a realm once inhabited by mythical monkey gods became the birthplace of one of history's most extraordinary empires? This is the captivating story of Vijayanagara, founded in 1336 on the very soil believed to be ancient Kishkinda. For over two hundred years, it reigned supreme, its opulent bazaars a vibrant crossroads of international trade, overflowing with jewels and the whispers of faraway lands. Then, in 1565, a thunderous blow from a confederacy of Deccan sultanates brought this magnificent Hindu kingdom to a brutal halt, consigning it to a slow, irreversible decline. Today, the ruins of Hampi stand as a stark, yet beautiful, reminder of that lost grandeur, a UNESCO World Heritage site where the vast majority of its 550 monuments remain unprotected, challenging us to look beyond the designated few and truly grasp the scale of what was lost”.
Hampi: Where Myth and Empire Converge
Nestled amidst a surreal landscape of colossal granite boulders, lush paddy fields, and banana plantations in Karnataka, India, lies Hampi. Located approximately 13 kilometers (8 miles) from the vibrant town of Hosapete (Hospet), Hampi serves as the profound gateway into the heart of the Vijayanagara Empire, a once-mighty Hindu kingdom that shaped South Indian history for over two centuries. For those who appreciate history, art, mythology and architecture, this UNESCO World Heritage Site isn't just a destination—it's an experience.
Echoes of a Glorious Past and Its Vast Scope
Hampi's history stretches back further than the Vijayanagara Empire itself; it's mentioned in the Ramayana and Puranas as Pampa Devi Tirtha Kshetra. In 1336, Telugu princes Harihara and Bukka founded Vijayanagara here, which rapidly grew into one of the largest and most prosperous empires. Its vibrant bazaars bustled with international commerce, brimming with precious stones and merchants from faraway lands. This golden age, however, met a sudden and devastating end in 1565 when a confederacy of Deccan sultanates ransacked the city, leading to its irreversible decline.
Today, the sprawling ruins of Hampi, officially known as the Group of Monuments at Hampi, are spread over an area of approximately 4,100 hectares (16 square miles) along the Tungabhadra River. Described by UNESCO as an "austere, grandiose site," it encompasses more than 1,600 surviving structures, including forts, temples, shrines, pillared halls, and water features, all showcasing the empire's exceptional artistic and engineering brilliance.
A Spiritual and Historical Tapestry
Beyond its archaeological marvels, Hampi is a treasure trove of spiritual sites. The name "Hampi" itself is derived from "Pampa," the ancient name of the Tungabhadra River, considered the daughter of Lord Brahma. While many structures lie in evocative ruin, the Virupaksha Temple remains a vibrant, functioning place of worship and an active Adi Shankara-linked monastery. The iconic stone chariot of the Vittala Temple stands as a testament to the empire's architectural prowess, frequently featured as Hampi's defining symbol. These sacred landscapes draw seekers, pilgrims, and curious minds, unraveling the spiritual tapestry woven into its ancient stones and echoing through the corridors of time.
Hampi's Unique Charm and Natural Beauty
Hampi possesses a unique, almost ethereal charm. Its distinctive bouldery terrain, arid yet dotted with unexpected greenery, especially during the monsoon, sets it apart. While declared a World Heritage Site in 1986, it's worth noting that only 58 of its 550 monuments currently hold heritage-protection status, inviting a deeper exploration beyond the main designated sites. Its rising popularity among backpackers with a taste for history and adventure is a testament to its enduring appeal.
Beyond the Ruins: Nearby Attractions
For those looking to extend their Hampi adventure, several nearby attractions offer diverse experiences:
Daroji Bear Sanctuary: A vast sanctuary spanning about 6000 hectares, perfect for wildlife enthusiasts, especially sloth bears.
Atal Bihari Vajpayee Zoological Park: A newer addition (opened in 2017) in Kamalapura, offering another wildlife encounter.
Tungabhadra Dam: Located near Hospet, this dam is a worthwhile stop on your way to or from Hampi, providing scenic views and a glimpse into modern infrastructure.
The Enduring Legacy of the Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire, also known as the Karnata Kingdom, was a formidable Hindu empire that dominated much of South India from 1336 to 1646 CE. Its rise marked a powerful response by southern kingdoms against the Muslim invasions that swept through the Deccan by the late 13th century.
Foundation and Golden Age
Founded in 1336 by the brothers Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, the empire quickly grew from its capital, Vijayanagara (modern-day Hampi). At its peak in the early 16th century under Krishnadevaraya, the empire subjugated most of Southern India's ruling dynasties, pushing the Deccan sultanates back and expanding its territory to encompass much of present-day Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Goa, and parts of Telangana and Maharashtra.
Vijayanagara, became a bustling metropolis, estimated to be the world's second-largest city by 1500 CE (after Beijing) and arguably India's richest. Its wealth and grandeur captivated medieval European travelers like Domingo Paes and Fernão Nunes, whose vivid accounts, along with local literature and archaeological excavations, provide invaluable insights into the empire's power and prosperity.
Administrative Acumen and Cultural Flourishing
The Vijayanagara kings were not only skilled warriors but also astute administrators and patrons of the arts. They fostered efficient governance, advanced water management systems for irrigation, and encouraged vigorous overseas trade through coastal ports like Mangalore and Bhatkal. This cosmopolitan society embraced diverse architectural styles, synthesizing various South and Central Indian temple traditions into a unique Vijayanagara architectural style characterized by colossal pillars and intricate ornamentation.
Culturally, the empire ushered in a golden epoch for South Indian arts. Its patronage allowed literature in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit to flourish, covering diverse subjects from astronomy and mathematics to musicology and theater. The classical music of Southern India, Carnatic music, evolved into its present form during this era. Furthermore, the empire transcended regionalism by promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor, while also embracing communities of other faiths like Jainism and Islam, leading to a rich multi-religious landscape.
Decline and Rediscovery
The empire's zenith was followed by a period of internal strife after Krishnadevaraya's death in 1529. Its power significantly declined after a major military defeat in the Battle of Talikota in 1565. In this pivotal battle, the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates decisively defeated the Vijayanagara forces under Aliya Rama Raya, leading to his capture and beheading. The capital city of Vijayanagara was subsequently conquered, systematically pillaged, and destroyed for six months, rendering it largely abandoned. While some rural settlements in the metropolitan region remained occupied, the once-great city never fully recovered its former glory.
The ruins remained largely forgotten until the early 19th century when orientalist Colonel Colin Mackenzie brought them to light. Today, these extensive ruins, known as the Group of Monuments at Hampi, stand as a testament to a magnificent past and are recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. While much of the city was abandoned, the Virupaksha Temple continues to be an active religious center, maintaining Hampi's ancient spiritual connection.
Name and Nomenclature
The Vijayanagara Empire takes its name from its capital city, Vijayanagara, which translates to "City of Victory" (from vijaya meaning victory and nagara meaning city). Contemporaries often referred to it as the Karnata Kingdom (Karnata Rajya), a name seen in inscriptions and literary works of the period, including Emperor Krishnadevaraya's Jambavati Kalyanam. Europeans, particularly the Portuguese, knew it as "The Kingdom of Narasinga," likely derived from the name of a prominent ruler like Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya or Narasimha Raya II.
The Genesis of an Empire: Hampi and Vijayanagara
Before the rise of the Vijayanagara Empire in the early 14th century, South India's Hindu kingdoms – the Yadavas, Kakatiyas, and Pandyas – faced relentless invasions from the Delhi Sultanate. By 1336, much of the upper Deccan, including modern Maharashtra and Telangana, had fallen to armies of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad bin Tughluq.
Birth of a Resistance
Amidst this turmoil, a Hoysala commander, Singeya Nayaka-III, declared independence and established the Kampili kingdom in northeastern Karnataka. While short-lived, its collapse in 1327-28, marked by a mass jauhar (ritual mass suicide), fueled the spirit of resistance. The Vijayanagara Kingdom emerged from these ruins in 1336, envisioned as a successor to the defeated Hindu powers and a bulwark against further Muslim incursions into South India.
Founding Legends and Early Growth
The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka I of the Sangama dynasty, have debated origins. One theory suggests they were Kannadiga commanders from the Hoysala army, strategically positioned in the Tungabhadra region. Another posits they were Telugu people, initially linked to the Kakatiya Kingdom, who gained control of northern Hoysala territories during its decline. Traditional accounts, particularly in Telugu narratives, credit Vidyaranya, a saint from the Sringeri monastery, with inspiring their resistance, though his exact role remains debated.
The chosen site for their capital, Vijayanagara, was already a sacred pilgrimage center known as Pampakshetra from as early as the 10th century. Mentioned in Ashoka's Rock Edicts (3rd century BCE) and Badami Chalukya inscriptions (6th-8th centuries), Hampi (derived from "Pampa," the goddess Parvati) carried deep mythological significance. It was believed to be Kishkindha, the realm of the monkey gods from the Hindu epic Ramayana, adding a layer of spiritual gravity to its selection.
From a 13th-century pilgrimage site, the city rapidly transformed into the capital of the nascent empire. By the early 16th century, it had expanded into a sprawling metropolis of approximately 650 square kilometers (250 sq mi) and was considered the world's second-largest city by 1500 CE, after Beijing, boasting a population estimated around 500,000.
The Sacred Landscape of Hampi
Hampi's ancient connection to Hindu mythology is profound. The name Hampi is a local evolution of "Pampa," another name for Goddess Parvati. According to local Sthala Purana, Parvati undertook asceticism on Hemakuta Hill in Hampi to win over Lord Shiva, who is thus known as Pampapati ("husband of Pampa"). This deep spiritual association made Hampi a significant pilgrimage destination long before the empire's founding, attracting devotees and pre-Vijayanagara Hindu kings who built and supported its temples, including the enduring Virupaksha Temple.
The site's fame also stems from the Kishkindha chapters of the Ramayana, with many geographical features in the Hampi area closely resembling descriptions in the epic, reinforcing its sacred appeal to pilgrims.
The Rise of the Vijayanagara Empire
The early 14th century saw widespread Muslim invasions from the north repeatedly raiding and attacking the Hindu states of the Deccan, including the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiyas of Warangal, and the Pandyas of Madurai. By 1336, the Delhi Sultanate had subdued much of the upper Deccan.
Discover the dynasties that shaped the Vijayanagara Empire in the table below.
You're looking at a display board found at the Hampi site.
Emperors of the Vijayanagara dynasty who rules over 3 centuries
Genesis and Consolidation (Sangama Dynasty)
Against this backdrop, the Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 by the Sangama brothers, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I. They were former officers of the short-lived Kampili kingdom, which had emerged as a regional resistance. While their precise ethnolinguistic origins are debated (either Kannadiga commanders under the Hoysalas or Telugu people associated with the Kakatiyas), their objective was clear: to establish a strong Hindu kingdom.
Harihara I rapidly gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra River, earning the title "master of the eastern and western seas." His successor, Bukka Raya I, further expanded the nascent empire. He defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai, securing Goa in the west and the strategic Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab in the north. The capital was strategically moved from Anegondi on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra to Vijayanagara (modern-day Hampi) for better defense against northern Muslim incursions.
With the empire's growing stature, Harihara II, Bukka Raya I's son, further consolidated territories beyond the Krishna River, bringing all of South India under Vijayanagara's control. The next ruler, Deva Raya I, focused on fortifications and irrigation, though his reign was marked by recurring conflicts with the Bahmani Sultanate, often over tribute payments.
Expansion and Challenges under Deva Raya II
Deva Raya II (1424-1446), often lauded as the most successful Sangama ruler, significantly expanded the empire. He quelled internal rebellions, subdued southern chiefdoms including Calicut and Quilon, and even asserted overlordship over the kings of Sri Lanka, Burma (Pegu), and Tanasserim. By 1436, the rebellious chiefs of Kondavidu and the Velama rulers were brought under Vijayanagara's suzerainty. His military preparations, including augmenting his forces with Muslim archers and cavalry, sometimes led to renewed conflicts with the Bahmani Sultanate.
However, the period after Deva Raya II saw a decline in the empire's prestige. His elder son, Mallikarjuna Raya, faced losses in the Tamil country to the Gajapatis of Odisha. His successor, Virupaksha Raya II, through a life of indulgence, further jeopardized the empire, losing Goa and much of Karnataka to the Bahmani Sultanate.
The Saluva and Tuluva Dynasties: Resurgence and Zenith
The tide turned with Saluva Narasimha, a capable governor who, through military prowess, recovered significant lost territories, including much of coastal Andhra Pradesh, parts of Tamil Nadu, and drove out the Pandyas from Tanjore. After Virupaksha Raya II's death in 1485, Saluva Narasimha staged a coup, initiating the Saluva dynasty and actively defending the empire against the splintering Bahmani Sultanates.
Saluva Narasimha entrusted his adolescent sons to Tuluva Narasa Nayaka, a powerful general who ably defended the empire. Despite numerous attempts to overthrow him, Narasa Nayaka remained regent until 1503. His son, Vira Narasimha, then seized power in a coup, establishing the Tuluva dynasty. This transition initially sparked internal revolts and external encroachments from the Gajapatis and Bahmani Sultanates.
The empire's true zenith under the Tuluvas arrived with Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), another son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka. Despite facing numerous obstacles—dissatisfied nobles, a rebellious chief in Ummattur, a resurgent Gajapati kingdom, the nascent Adil Shahi Sultanate of Bijapur, and Portuguese interest in the west coast—Krishnadevaraya systematically strengthened and consolidated the empire. His astute leadership and inclusive military policies, hiring both Hindus and Muslims, led to decisive victories against the five Deccan sultanates and established Vijayanagara as the dominant power across Southern India.
By 1500 CE, Vijayanagara had become the world's second-largest city and arguably India's richest, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal, a testament to the empire's unparalleled prosperity and strategic importance.
The Zenith of the Vijayanagara Empire: Krishnadevaraya's Reign
The Vijayanagara Empire reached its glorious zenith under the rule of Emperor Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529). His reign was marked by a series of decisive military victories that significantly expanded the empire's territories. Vijayanagara armies consistently triumphed over their rivals, gaining control of key regions from the Deccan Sultanates, including Raichur in 1520 and Gulbarga in the central Deccan. Further conquests extended to the eastern Deccan through wars with Sultan Quli Qutb Shah of Golconda, and the Kalinga region was wrested from the Gajapatis of Odisha. These expansions solidified Vijayanagara's already established dominance in the southern Deccan. Krishnadevaraya's era also saw the completion or commissioning of numerous important monuments, further enriching the empire's architectural legacy.
The Succession and Decline
Following Krishnadevaraya's death in 1529, his younger half-brother Achyuta Deva Raya ascended the throne. Upon Achyuta Deva Raya's demise in 1542, his teenage nephew, Sadashiva Raya, was appointed emperor. However, real power shifted to Rama Raya, Krishnadevaraya's son-in-law, who became the de facto ruler, effectively holding Sadashiva Raya as a prisoner once the latter came of age.
Rama Raya's foreign policy was characterized by audacious interference in the internal affairs of the Deccan Sultanates. Leveraging his diplomatic connections, he hired Muslim generals into his army, even styling himself "Sultan of the World" and recruiting Muslims from across the Deccan and Westerners from beyond the Persian Gulf. He skillfully played the Muslim powers against each other, establishing Vijayanagara as the most powerful and influential regional force. While initially successful, this aggressive strategy eventually led to widespread unpopularity among both his own people and the Muslim rulers. His actions, including a commercial treaty with the Portuguese to cut off horse supplies to Bijapur, followed by a victory over the Bijapur sultan and humiliating defeats inflicted upon Golconda and Ahmadnagar, set the stage for future conflict.
The Fall of Vijayanagara: Defeat and Decline
The Battle of Talikota (1565 CE)
The Vijayanagara Empire's dominance came to an abrupt end in January 1565 with the Battle of Talikota. The Deccan Sultanates, united against Rama Raya's aggressive policies, launched a decisive attack. Historian Kamath notes that despite being numerically smaller, the Sultanate armies possessed superior military technology and training. Their artillery was managed by skilled Turkish gunners, their cavalry rode swift Persian horses with long spears (15-16 feet), and their archers wielded powerful metal crossbows, offering greater range. In contrast, the Vijayanagara army relied on slower war elephants, cavalry on locally bred horses with shorter javelins, and traditional bamboo bows. Richard Eaton suggests that Krishnadevaraya's earlier victory against a technologically superior force led him to underestimate the value of continued investment in military advancements, contributing to this disparity.
Despite these disadvantages, the vast Vijayanagara army initially seemed to hold the upper hand. However, the tide decisively turned when two Muslim generals (identified by Kamath as the mercenary Gilani brothers) betrayed Rama Raya and switched allegiance to the Deccan Sultanates. This defection led to Rama Raya's capture and beheading by Sultan Hussain, who notoriously had the severed head stuffed with straw for display. Rama Raya's death plunged the Vijayanagara army into chaos and confusion, leading to its complete rout. The victorious Deccan Sultanate armies then plundered Hampi, reducing it to the ruins seen today.
The Aravidu Dynasty and Final Collapse
Following Rama Raya's death, Tirumala Deva Raya founded the Aravidu dynasty. He attempted to revive the shattered empire, establishing a new capital at Penukonda to replace the devastated Hampi. In 1572, Tirumala abdicated, dividing the remnants of his empire among his three sons.
While the Aravidu dynasty continued to rule the region, the Vijayanagara Empire gradually fragmented. Persistent wars with the Bijapur Sultanate and other emerging powers led to its eventual collapse in 1614, with the final vestiges disappearing by 1646. During this period of decline, numerous South Indian kingdoms asserted their independence from Vijayanagara, including the Nayakas of Chitradurga, Keladi Nayaka, Mysore Kingdom, Nayak Kingdom of Gingee, Nayaks of Tanjore, and Nayaks of Madurai.
Governance in the Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire's administrative framework was largely built upon the methods of its predecessors, including the Hoysala, Kakatiya, and Pandya kingdoms. Governance was shaped by seven key elements: the emperor, ministry, territory, fort, treasury, military, and allies.
Water Management and Urban Planning
The capital city's survival depended on sophisticated water supply systems designed for channeling and storing water year-round. Remnants of these hydraulic systems provide valuable insights into the surface water distribution methods of the time in South India's semi-arid regions. Contemporary accounts and foreign travelers' notes describe massive tanks built by laborers. Excavations have revealed a well-connected water distribution network specifically within the royal enclosure and large temple complexes, suggesting exclusive use by royalty and for special ceremonies. This system utilized sophisticated channels with gravity and siphons to transport water through pipelines. In fertile agricultural areas near the Tungabhadra River, canals with sluices were dug to direct river water into irrigation tanks. In other regions, the administration encouraged well-digging, which was also monitored. While large tanks in the capital received royal patronage, smaller ones were often funded by wealthy individuals seeking social and religious merit.
Religious Landscape of the Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire stood out for its religious tolerance and strong patronage of Hinduism. Emperors adopted titles like Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya ("protector of cows and Brahmins") and supported diverse religious practices.
Hindu Traditions and Royal Patronage
The empire’s founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I (Shaivas), also granted support to Vishnu temples. Their guru, Vidyaranya of the Advaita order at Sringeri, influenced early religious policy. The Varaha (Vishnu’s boar avatar) symbolized the empire.
Later rulers, including the Saluva and Tuluva dynasties, leaned toward Vaishnavism, worshipping Venkateshwara at Tirupati and Virupaksha at Hampi. Emperor Krishnadevaraya revered Virupaksha as Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani (“protective jewel of the Karnata Empire”) and supported Dvaita saints of Madhvacharya’s order. Royal donations included land, wealth, and temple construction.
An inscription at Hampi with the phrase Hinduraya Suratrana has multiple interpretations—either “Sultan among Hindu kings” or “protector of Hindu deities”—suggesting a blending of Hindu identity with Islamic political idioms.
Bhakti Movement and the Haridasas
The Bhakti movement, like the earlier Virashaiva wave, spurred mass devotional fervor. Haridasas were key figures, divided into:
Vyasakuta – Scholars of Vedic texts.
Dasakuta – Composers of devotional songs in Kannada.
Prominent figures included Naraharitirtha, Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vyasatirtha, and Vadirajatirtha. Vyasatirtha, guru to Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa, was a spiritual guide to Krishnadevaraya. In Telugu regions, Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas at Tirupati.
Jainism
Jainism declined post the 11th century with the Chola defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty and the rise of Vaishnavism and Virashaivism. However, key Jain centers like Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli persisted within Vijayanagara territory.
Islam
Islam reached South India through trade in the 7th century. By the 14th century, Muslim communities (like the Mappillas) were established, especially on the Malabar coast. Under Deva Raya, Vijayanagara saw increased Muslim presence, including the construction of a mosque and the symbolic placement of the Quran before the throne.
Christianity
Christian presence in South India dates to the 8th century through land grants to Malabar Christians. Though sparse during medieval times, Christianity gained ground with Portuguese arrival in the 15th century and missionary efforts by Francis Xavier and Dutch settlers.
The Architectural Splendor of Hampi
Hampi, the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, was a hub of remarkable art and architecture from 1336 to 1565 CE. Its buildings were intentionally aligned with the natural features of the landscape, incorporating the existing sacred complexes of Pampa Tirtha and Kishkindha. The Vijayanagara rulers, deeply devoted to religion and art, invested heavily in creating magnificent structures across South India, with the greatest concentration in their capital, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Architectural Styles and Planning
Vijayanagara architecture synthesizes earlier Chalukya, Hoysala, Rashtrakuta, Pandya, and Chola styles, often returning to a simpler, serene aesthetic. This rich legacy continued to influence arts long after the empire's decline.
Hampi layout
Archaeologists classify the capital into two main zones:
The Sacred Centre: Primarily located along the south bank, this area boasts the highest concentration of religious structures.
The Royal Centre: This zone houses stately civil and military buildings, forming the very seat of imperial power.
The architectural styles, along with associated sculptures and paintings, are broadly categorized into religious, courtly, and civic architecture, showcasing the empire's diverse building endeavors. Hampi also incorporates structures from the pre-Vijayanagara period, such as the Western Chalukya era Mahakuta hill temples, reflecting the region's long history as a place of worship dating back to 689 CE.
Vijayanagara Architecture: A Synthesis of Styles
According to art critic Percy Brown, Vijayanagara architecture represents a vibrant synthesis and flourishing of earlier South Indian styles, including those of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya, and Chola dynasties. Its enduring legacy in sculpture, architecture, and painting profoundly influenced the arts long after the empire's decline. A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the open-air theater of monuments at its capital, Hampi, stands as a testament to this unique architectural heritage.
Key Stylistic Elements and Evolution
The stylistic hallmarks of Vijayanagara architecture include the highly ornate Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls), and the towering Rayagopura. Artisans predominantly used locally available hard granite, favored for its durability, a practical choice given the empire's constant threat of invasion.
In the 14th century, Vijayanagara kings continued to build monuments in the Vesara or Deccan style. However, they later began incorporating Dravida-style gopurams to meet their ritualistic needs. Early examples of this style include the Prasanna Virupaksha Temple (underground temple) built by Bukka and the Hazare Rama Temple by Deva Raya. A defining characteristic of their work is the intricate and varied ornamentation of pillars. The Vitthala and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Hampi are prime examples of their distinctive pillared Kalyanamantapa style. There was also a notable return to the simplistic and serene artistry reminiscent of the earlier Chalukya dynasty. The iconic Vitthala Temple, for instance, took several decades to complete under the Tuluva kings.
Monolithic Sculptures and Regional Spread
Another significant element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and consecration of large monoliths. Prominent examples include the Sasivekaalu (mustard) Ganesha and Kadalekaalu (groundnut) Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshwara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur, and the Nandi bull in Lepakshi.
This distinctive architectural style is evident across numerous temples throughout South India:
Karnataka: Kolar, Kanakagiri, Sringeri.
Andhra Pradesh: Tadpatri, Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara Temple, Srikalahasti.
Tamil Nadu: Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi, Srirangam.
Mural Paintings: Vijayanagara art also encompassed impressive wall-paintings. Notable examples include:
Virupaksha Temple at Hampi: Depictions of Dashavatara (ten incarnations of Vishnu) and Girijakalyana (marriage of Parvati, Shiva's consort).
Virabhadra Temple at Lepakshi: Shivapurana murals (tales of Shiva).
Kamakshi and Varadaraja temples at Kanchi.
This amalgamation of various South Indian styles resulted in a unique artistic idiom, emphasizing reliefs in addition to traditional sculpture, a distinct departure from earlier Indian art.
Cosmopolitanism and Islamic Influences
An intriguing aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that highlights the city's cosmopolitanism is the presence of numerous secular structures exhibiting Islamic features. While political narratives often focus on conflict with the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reveals a more symbiotic interaction. Many arches, domes, and vaults demonstrate these influences. The concentration of structures like pavilions, stables, and towers suggests their use by royalty.
The absorption of these decorative details into Vijayanagara architecture likely occurred during the early 15th century, coinciding with the reigns of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II, who were known to employ many Muslims in their army and court, possibly including Muslim architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas likely flourished during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. Even the "Great Platform" (Mahanavami Dibba) features relief carvings with figures possessing facial features resembling Central Asian Turks, who were indeed employed as royal attendants.
Fortifications and Infrastructure
The Vijayanagara Empire meticulously designed its capital, Vijayanagara, as a formidable fortress. Constructed with massive stone and earthen walls, and reinforced by hilltop fortresses and watchtowers, the city was built for ultimate protection against invasions. Visitors, regardless of their purpose, had to navigate heavily fortified areas before reaching the urban core, offering a clear display of the empire's might. Crucial entry points to the metropolis and other key locations were guarded by extensive fortifications, complemented by watch posts and bastions strategically placed along roads, gates, and hilltops for maximum visibility.
As the political, commercial, and pilgrimage hub, the capital boasted an extensive road network. Research reveals over 80 transportation-related sites connected by several broad main roads, ranging from 30 to 60 meters wide, facilitating major routes into the city. Smaller roads, under 10 meters wide, branched off to temples, settlements, and irrigation fields. This entire network was efficiently monitored from watchtowers, gates, and rest houses, ensuring both security and smooth movement within the thriving metropolis.
Urban Settlements
The sprawling metropolitan region of Vijayanagara was a vibrant tapestry of life, home to an incredibly diverse population including royalty, imperial officers, soldiers, farmers, craftspeople, merchants, and laborers. Literary accounts from the era even confirm the presence of large military encampments on the city's outskirts. Beyond the main metropolis, the countryside was dotted with walled towns and villages. Some of these settlements housed just a few thousand people, while others were substantial enough for ten to fifteen thousand residents, each featuring multiple shrines and temples. Sadly, many Vijayanagara-period relics have been lost over time due to modern habitation within these historic settlements.
Temple Structures of Hampi
Hampi's landscape is dominated by magnificent Dravidian temple complexes, testaments to the Vijayanagara Empire's flourishing architecture. Key examples include the Krishna, Narasimha, Ganesa, Hemakuta group, Achyutaraya, Vitthala, and Pattabhirama temple complexes, along with the Lotus Mahal complex. These large complexes were often surrounded by suburban townships (puras) featuring subsidiary shrines, bazaars, residential areas, and sophisticated hydraulic systems that seamlessly integrated urban planning with defense architecture. The unearthed remains highlight the era's remarkable economic prosperity and advanced societal development.
Dravidian Architectural Style
Vijayanagara's Dravidian architecture is characterized by its massive scale, cloistered enclosures, and towering, decorated gopurams (entrance towers). Temples are typically surrounded by strong enclosure walls. Construction primarily utilized local granite, burnt bricks, and lime mortar, favoring stone masonry with a post-and-lintel system and lantern roofs. Gopurams and sanctums were built with stone and brick, with roofs featuring heavy granite slabs sealed with waterproof brick jelly and lime mortar.
Temple Layouts
Small shrines: Consisted simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a porch.
Medium-sized temples: Included a garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (connecting hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). These also featured a closed Pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory passage), an open mahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa (ceremonial hall), and a temple tank for annual celebrations.
Large temples: Showcased tall Rayagopurams, a Chola-influenced style incorporating wood, brick, and stucco, popularized by King Krishnadevaraya. These gopurams are adorned with life-sized figures of deities and humans, topped with a barrel-shaped shalashikhara. Large temples often included a separate shrine for the female deity, as seen in the Hazara Rama, Balakrishna, and Vitthala temples.
Notable Features
Vitthala Temple: The pinnacle of Vijayanagara temple architecture, known for its exquisite ornamentation. It's a fully developed complex with a Kalyana Mandapa, Utsava Mandapa, and three entrance Gopurams. Its highlights include a Garuda shrine fashioned as a granite ratha (chariot) and a grand bazaar street. The complex also features a large Pushkarani (stepped tank) with a central Vasantotsava mandapa, wells, and water channels.
Chariot Streets and Mandapas: Many temples feature wide "Chariot streets" flanked by rows of pillared mandapas, introduced to accommodate chariot festivals. The famous stone chariot in front of the Vitthala temple is an example of this religious tradition.
Pillars: Ornate pillars are a defining characteristic, often supporting mandapas built on high plinths with carved friezes and stepped entrances. Popular designs include the "1,000-pillared" style. Pillars frequently depict charging horses or hippogriffs (Yali) with riders standing seven to eight feet tall, often complemented by carvings from Hindu mythology. Some pillars have clusters of smaller pillars around a central shaft, with engravings of gods and goddesses at their bases.
Stepped Tank (Pushkarni): A significant archaeological discovery within the royal center, this Pushkarni is crafted from finished chlorite schist slabs in a symmetrical stepped formation. Its Western Chalukya-Hoysala style suggests the material was sourced from outside the immediate Vijayanagara area.
Alwar and Ramanujacharya Shrines: Specific shrines in the Vitthalapura area were consecrated for Tamil Alwar saints and the Vaishnava saint, Ramanujacharya. Architecturally distinct, each features an image of the saint it honors, with its own enclosure, kitchen, and pilgrim-feeding hall.
Religious Architecture and Artistic Hallmarks
Hampi's religious architecture, drawing on locally available resources, represents the distinctive Vijayanagara style. This architectural tradition is evident in the pre-Vijayanagara temples on Hemakuta Hill and around the Virupaksha Temple.
Key stylistic features include:
Mandapas: Large, multi-purpose halls like the elaborate Kalyanamantapa (marriage halls) and open-pillared Vasanthamantapas became central to temple complexes.
Rayagopurams: Imposing entrance towers, named after the ruling Rayas, were a notable Vijayanagara contribution to South Indian temple design.
Intricate Pillar Ornamentation: Pillars throughout the temples display varied and detailed carvings, a clear mark of their craftsmanship.
Monolithic Carvings and Spread of the Style
Taking advantage of the abundant massive boulders, the Vijayanagara style features impressive monolithic sculptures. A prime example is the spectacular over twenty-foot-tall Narasimha carving, a man-lion incarnation of Vishnu seated beneath a seven-hooded serpent (Adisesha), donated by Krishnadevaraya. Other notable monoliths include the Sasivekaalu (mustard) Ganesha and Kadalekaalu (groundnut) Ganesha at Hampi, and the Gommateshwara (Bahubali) figures in Karkala and Venur.
The influence of Vijayanagara architecture extends far beyond Hampi. You can see this distinctive style in temples across Karnataka (like Kolar, Kanakagiri, Sringeri), Andhra Pradesh (including Tadpatri, Lepakshi, and the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple), and Tamil Nadu (such as Vellore, Kumbakonam, and Srirangam).
Materials and Cosmopolitan Design
Vijayanagara architecture notably shifted from the earlier preference for chloritic schist (soapstone), a soft and easily carved material popular during the Western Chalukya and Hoysala periods. Under the Vijayanagara Empire, hard granite became the primary construction material, particularly for temple structures, offering greater durability against constant threats of invasion. While this sometimes reduced the intricacy of individual sculptures due to granite's flaking tendency, artists compensated by using plaster to create smooth, painted finishes. Soapstone was still employed for certain reliefs and sculptures.
The empire's defense architecture was impressive, featuring seven lines of fort walls, at least one of which remains largely intact today.
Secular and Indo-Saracenic Influences
Hampi's secular architecture vividly demonstrates the city's cosmopolitan nature. Numerous palatial buildings exhibit Indo-Saracenic characteristics, blending Hindu and Muslim architectural features. Despite continuous political conflicts with the Deccan sultanates, the architectural record reveals a more creative interaction, with structures showcasing distinct Islamic influences like arches, domes, and vaults.
These secular structures, including pavilions, stables, and towers, likely served the royalty, with decorative elements possibly absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century reigns of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. The presence of an Islamic Quarter (also known as the Moorish Quarter), housing high-ranking Muslim officers and military personnel, further suggests a harmonious exchange of ideas. This area contains tombs, graves, and mosques, indicating a significant Muslim population and possibly Muslim architects contributing to the city's diverse landscape. Even carvings on the "Great Platform" (Mahanavami Dibba) depict figures with Central Asian Turkic features, reflecting the empire's employment of a diverse workforce, including royal attendants. This rich variety of domestic, public, and royal structures highlights the breadth of Hindu civilian architecture during the period.
Virupaksha Temple: A Timeless Marvel of Hampi
The Virupaksha Temple, an enduring symbol of Hampi's rich history, is the oldest functioning shrine in the region. Dating back to the 7th century, it miraculously survived the destruction wrought by the Deccan Sultanate. This site is a testament to the contributions of the Badami Chalukyas, Hoysalas, and the Vijayanagara Empire.
Architectural Grandeur and Deities
The temple complex features a main temple, a pillared hall, and a courtyard. The primary deity is Lord Virupaksha, or Pampapathi, an incarnation of Lord Shiva, whose sanctum houses a mukha-linga—a Shiva linga with a brass-embossed face. The complex also includes shrines dedicated to Bhuvaneshwari and Vidyaranya, enhancing its spiritual significance.
Virupaksha Temple plan
The Magnificent Gopurams
Three towering gopurams (entrance towers) encircle the complex. The most prominent is the eastern gopuram, a remarkable 50-meter, nine-story structure built in the 15th century. Its regularly painted facade features intricate carvings of Hindu gods and goddesses, including erotic sculptures, showcasing the era's artistic mastery. This gopuram aligns the sanctums of the Shiva and Pampa Devi temples with the sunrise.
A unique feature of the temple is the inverted shadow of the main tower, which falls on a wall within the premises, a fascinating example of ancient architectural ingenuity.
Eastern Gopuram
Temple Layout and Features
The wide-angle view of the Galigopuram of the Virupaksha Temple in Hampi captured from Hemakunta Hill complex. The photograph showcases the Gopuram's towering height and elaborate carvings, which depict various mythological figures and floral motifs. This perspective allows for a clear appreciation of the Gopuram's architectural grandeur and its significance as a focal point of the temple complex. Surrounding the Gopuram are lush green landscapes and historic structures, enhancing the temple's prominence in the scenic backdrop of Hampi. The image conveys the rich cultural heritage and artistry associated with this UNESCO World Heritage Site, inviting viewers to explore its historical importance.
Beyond the main eastern gopuram, a rectangular court leads to a smaller gopuram from 1510 CE. To its south lies a 100-column hall adorned with Hindu reliefs, connected to a communal kitchen. Water is supplied to the kitchen and feeding hall via a rock-cut channel. The subsequent courtyard features a dipa-stambha (lamp pillar) and a Nandi statue.
The main mandapa of the Shiva temple, expanded by Krishnadevaraya, has a painted ceiling depicting various Hindu legends, including the marriage of Shiva and Parvati, the tale of Rama and Sita, and Kama shooting an arrow at Shiva. While scholars like George Michell suggest these paintings are 19th-century renovations, their original themes remain unknown. The mandapa's pillars are notable for their outsized yalis—mythical creatures often ridden by warriors, a signature Vijayanagara characteristic.
Left: The mandapa with a painted ceiling; right: scenes like the marriage of Pampa and Virupaksha (in the center), both in the Virupaksha temple, in the city of Vijayanagara
The complex also houses smaller shrines for Parvati's aspects, Pampa and Bhuvaneshwari. The Bhuvaneshwari shrine, distinct in its Chalukyan granite architecture, is north of the main sanctum. A northern gopuram leads to the Manmatha tank and a river pathway with Ramayana-themed stone reliefs. Nearby are Shaktism and Vaishnavism shrines, dedicated to Durga and Vishnu respectively. Some of these shrines were whitewashed in the 19th century under British orders, a tradition that continues today.
In the temple courtyard, a giant, three-headed Nandi (Lord Shiva's vehicle) stands. It's considered lucky if visitors can meet their fingers across a semicircular stone.
Survival Amidst Destruction
The Virupaksha Temple's survival during Hampi's plundering is attributed to the fact that its prominent eastern gopuram, also known as Bishtappaiah gopuram, was constructed in the 17th century, after Hampi was reduced to rubble. Bishtappaiah, a follower of sage Vidyaranya, was instrumental in both the construction of this gopuram and the temple's subsequent resurrection.
Krishna Temple: A Royal Commission
Krishnadevaraya commissioned the Krishna Temple in Hampi to commemorate his victory in the Orissa campaign. Legend states he brought back a Bala Krishna (child Krishna) idol, though it's no longer present. The gopuram over the entrance visually narrates the idol's story and the Orissa campaign, with carvings of warriors and Krishna serving as a lasting reminder of the victory. The temple is adorned with sculptures of victory. The temple is adorned with sculptures and carvings of Krishna and Lord Vishnu, including the rare
Kalki avatar (depicted as a seated figure with a horse's head), and
Scenes from the Ramayana and
Krishna Leela. A well-preserved
massive stone hundi is also on display.
Eastern Gopuram
Krishnapura: Temple and Market Complex
Also known as the Balakrishna Temple, this structure dates to 1515 CE and is located about 1 kilometer south of the Virupaksha Temple, in the area historically known as Krishnapura. In front of the ruined temple lies a long market street, or bazaar, where traders once sold their wares. This broad road, flanked by colonnaded stone shop ruins, accommodated chariots and served as a venue for ceremonial functions. In the middle of the market, to the north of the road, is a large Pushkarani—a public utility-stepped water tank with an artistic central pavilion—and an adjacent public hall (mandapa).
The temple walls are carved with scenes from the Bhagavata Purana (the story of Lord Krishna) and daily life, while the mahamandapa pillars depict the Dashavatars of Vishnu. This large, ornate, east-facing temple complex exemplifies typical Vijayanagara architectural style.
Pushkarni
Temple Layout and Features
Built in the panchayatana style with two enclosures, the complex includes a main shrine with sanctum, a vestibule, pillared pavilions, halls, a Devi shrine, and numerous sub-shrines. A kitchen and a separate store are located within the first enclosure. The grand, towered eastern gateway is a prominent example of Vijayanagara architecture, leading to a 500-meter street bazaar and a sacred water tank.
The meticulous urban planning is evident in the surviving marketplace remnants, including stone walls possibly belonging to traders' residences and a water tank fed by an aqueduct from the river. This highlights the Vijayanagara rulers' emphasis on strategic governance and infrastructure.
The temple opens to the east, featuring a gateway with reliefs of all ten avatars of Vishnu, starting with Matsya at the bottom. Inside are the ruined shrines for Krishna and goddesses. The compound features two gopuram entrances and layered mandapas, including a 25-bay open mandapa leading to a 9-bay enclosed mandapa. The original Balakrishna image is now in a Chennai museum. The western gopuram displays friezes of battle formations and soldiers.
Achyutaraya Temple: A Vijayanagara Masterpiece
The Achyutaraya Temple, originally known as the Tiruvengalanatha (Vishnu) Temple, was constructed in 1534 during the reign of King Achyutaraya, the younger brother of the renowned Krishnadevaraya. Epigraphic evidence suggests it was built by Achyutaraya's brother-in-law and chief minister, 'Hiriya Tirumala'. This temple, dedicated to a form of Lord Vishnu, showcases typical Vijayanagara architectural style and is one of the four largest temple complexes in Hampi. It holds particular significance as the last grand temple built before Hampi's decline.
Location and Approach
The temple is strategically situated in a picturesque valley between Gandhamadana and Matanga Hills, approximately 1 kilometer (0.62 miles) east of the Virupaksha Temple, with its sacred center near the Tungabhadra River. Its secluded location often means fewer tourists. The best way to approach the temple is by ascending the steps behind the monolithic Nandi statue. Unusually, this temple faces north.
Architectural Highlights
The Achyutaraya Temple boasts advanced architecture compared to other Hampi structures. Its courtyard is adorned with intricately carved pillars, featuring exquisite reliefs of Lord Vishnu and Krishna, along with other deities like Shiva, Surya, and Durga. Scenes of daily life, including rishis, amorous couples, jokers, people performing yoga asanas, and those in namaste poses, are also depicted. The temple complex comprises an antarala, rangamantapa, and garbhagriha.
This wide-angle image showcases the Galigopuram of the Achyutaraya complex, emphasizing its impressive scale and intricate architectural details. The gopuram, a towering gateway adorned with elaborate carvings, reflects the artistic achievements of the Vijayanagara Empire, featuring a multitude of sculptures that depict deities and mythological narratives.
In Vijayanagara times, pilgrims and visitors would approach the temple from the river, passing a ceremonial tank and then traversing a broad market street. The temple once featured an outer gopuram leading to a courtyard with a 100-column hall, and an inner gopuram providing access to the Vishnu temple itself. The Vijayanagara dynastic emblems—a boar (from Varaha), a sword, the sun, and the moon—are visible on the temple gateway. Two rectangular enclosures surround the main shrine, with the inner pillared walkways being better preserved.
Sule Bazaar (Courtesan Street)
In front of the temple lies Courtesan Street, also known as Sule Bazaar. Historical accounts from early travelers describe this market as an unparalleled global center for the sale of precious stones and pearls. Despite its historical significance as a pearl bazaar, the origin of the name "Sule Bazaar" (meaning "Prostitute's market" in the local language) remains unclear.
The Magnificence of Vitthala Temple and Market Complex, Hampi
Ruins of Vijaya Vittal Temple
The Vitthala Temple and Market Complex stands as an unparalleled artistic and architectural masterpiece within the sacred center of Vijayanagara. Located over 3 kilometers northeast of the Virupaksha Temple, near the banks of the Tungabhadra River, this complex is a highlight of Hampi's rich heritage.
Construction and Dedication
The exact origins of the Vitthala Temple remain somewhat unclear, though most scholars date its primary construction to the early to mid-16th century. Historical accounts suggest that its building likely commenced during the reign of Devaraya II and continued through the reigns of Krishnadevaraya, Achyutaraya, and possibly Sadasivaraya, ceasing with the city's destruction in 1565. Inscriptions with both male and female names indicate that multiple patrons contributed to its creation. The temple is dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Krishna also known as Vithoba.
Architectural Layout and Features
The temple complex is a low, single-story structure, averaging 25 feet in height, enclosed within a paved courtyard measuring 500 by 300 feet. This courtyard is surrounded by a triple row of pillars and contains several subsidiary shrines, all oriented eastward. The main temple itself, facing east, follows a square plan and comprises three distinct compartments: a garbhagriha (sanctum), an ardhamandapa (antechamber), and a mahamandapa or sabha mandapa (congregation hall). It is adorned with a sculptured, ornate plinth.
The complex is entered via an impressive entrance gopuram, flanked by two side gopurams. The walled enclosure spans approximately 1.3 hectares (3.2 acres), with colonnaded verandas lining the compound walls. A kitchen with a roof window is situated in the southeast corner.
The Musical Pillars and Stone Chariot
A hallmark of the Vitthala Temple is its extraordinary sabhamandapa (congregation hall). Its massive composite pillars, hewn from single granite blocks, are designed as clusters of slender pillars. When gently tapped, some of these pillars famously produce musical notes, leading to the belief that the hall was used for public celebrations of music and dance. Specifically, 8-10 pillars are noted for producing sounds akin to various Indian instruments like the Mridangam, Jalatharanga, and Damaru. This unique acoustic property once aroused the suspicion of the British, who cut open a pillar (the cut is still visible) to investigate, only to find nothing hidden within – a testament to the marvel of ancient craftsmanship.
Pillared open mantapa incorporating Hoysala style
"staggered square" layout at Vittala temple
Within the courtyard stands the iconic Garuda shrine, sculpted in the form of a stone chariot. This intricately carved chariot, a widely recognized symbol of Hampi, was originally topped with a tower (since removed). The stone chariot is carved from a single block of granite, and its wheels are designed to rotate. The Vitthala Temple's design as a Karakkoil, a temple fashioned after processional chariots, further emphasizes its significance.
The Garuda shrine in the form of a stone chariot at Vitthala temple.
Exploring the Complex
The main mandapa connects to an enclosed pradakshina patha for circumambulating the sanctum. Clockwise from the east, visitors will find the Garuda shrine, the Kalyana mandapa (wedding ceremonies), a 100-columned mandapa, the Amman shrine, and the Utsav mandapa (festival hall). The Kalyana mandapa, a hallmark of Vijayanagara art, is an open, multi-pillared hall with a raised platform and intricately carved granite columns. Its external piers feature riders on rearing yallis —mythical creatures (part horse, lion, or elephant) believed to be protectors, a common motif in South Indian temples since the 16th century.
An open mantapa with yali columns at the Vittala temple in Hampi
Beyond the temple compound, to its east lies a vast, ruined market street almost a kilometer long, once a bustling bazaar measuring 945 meters in length and 40 meters in width, leading to the sacred Lokapavani tank. To the north was another market and a south-facing shrine with reliefs depicting scenes from the Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Vaishnava saints. The northern street concluded at a temple honoring the Hindu philosopher Ramanuja. The area around the Vitthala Temple, known as Vitthalapura, served as a Vaishnava matha (monastery) and a pilgrimage center rooted in the Alvar tradition, also noted for its craft production.
Yali pillars of a mantapa at Vittala temple, Hampi
The site contains a picturesque, lonely frangipani tree, perfect for a photo opportunity!
Access to the Vitthala complex is convenient, either by walking or taking a buggy from the Vitthala complex stop near Gejjala Mantapa. Along the way, you'll pass the striking stone pillars of the Vitthala bazaar and the horse-depicting pillars of the Kudure Gombe Mantapa. A large kalyani (pond) is also visible, though its water level varies seasonally. While a riverside path exists, it is uneven and rocky.
Kudure gombe (horse doll) pillars in a mantapa at Hampi
The Purandaradasa Mantapa: A Symphony in Stone at Hampi
Nestled on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in the heart of Hampi stands the Purandaradasa Mantapa, a humble yet profound pavilion whose stones echo the music of history, mythology, and devotion. This 16th-century, open-pillared structure, with its distinctive whitewashed top, is a dedicated tribute to the legendary poet-saint, Purandaradasa.
Sri Purandaradasa: The Father of Carnatic Music
Born in 1484 and passing in 1564, Sri Purandaradasa was a towering figure in the Bhakti movement and a devout follower of Vittala. He is revered as 'Sangeetha Pitamaha' (Father of Carnatic music) and stands among the revered "Trinity of Carnatic Music" alongside Tyagaraja Swami and Muthuswami Dikshitar. Purandaradasa, who renounced his wealth to become a saint, is believed to have composed an astounding 75,000 classical compositions, though only about a thousand survive today. All his known works are dedicated to Purandara Vittala, an epithet for his beloved Krishna. It is widely believed that he composed many of these devotional songs while seated in this very mantapa. He spent his final years in Hampi, even singing in the court of Krishnadevaraya.
Architecture and Significance of the Mantapa
The Purandaradasa Mantapa is a simple yet robust rectangular structure built from heavy granite blocks. Approximately 70 feet long, 40 feet wide, and 10 feet high, it features 60 pillars with excellent workmanship. The ceiling is covered with stucco. One of the pillars features a neat relief sculpture of Sri Purandaradasa himself, facing the river. He is depicted in traditional attire, holding a tambura (an ancient stringed musical instrument) and a kartal. The mantapa appears to be situated directly on a rockbed, a feature that likely contributed to its remarkable longevity.
A Living Legacy: Music and Rituals
The mantapa is not just a historical monument; it's a vibrant hub for religious rituals and a testament to Purandaradasa's enduring legacy. Its proximity to the Tungabhadra River means that during the monsoon season, the water often touches or even submerges its platform, adding to its unique charm.
Every year, a two or three-day Carnatic music festival is held here, usually in January or February, to commemorate Purandaradasa's birth anniversary. Musicians of national and international repute gather in this sacred space to perform his timeless compositions, ensuring his musical heritage continues to resonate across generations. Visitors are requested to remove their footwear before entering the pavilion area, honoring the sanctity of the space. The platform adjacent to the mantapa is a recent addition, facilitating these annual musical celebrations. It's truly heartening to witness such an important historical structure so well-maintained and celebrated.
Hemakuta Hill: Hampi's Ancient Temple Cluster
Perched atop Hemakuta Hill in Hampi, this captivating cluster of ancient shrines forms one of the oldest and most historically significant groups of temples in the region. Located in the southern part of Hampi village, between the Virupaksha Temple complex to the north and the Krishna Temple to the south, it offers panoramic views of Hampi and the fertile agricultural valley separating the sacred and royal centers. Easily accessible, the hill is an excellent spot for both sunrise and sunset views.
Architectural Characteristics
The temples on Hemakuta Hill are modest in size and represent preserved examples of pre-Vijayanagara and early-Vijayanagara construction, with the latest examples dating to the early 14th century. Unlike typical Vijayanagara architecture, these temples are triple-chambered structures, compactly built with pyramid-like granite roofs. This distinct style often led to their mistaken identification as Jain temples. Most of these shrines are dedicated to Lord Shiva.
The hill features over thirty temples, along with water cisterns, gateways, and secular pavilions. Some structures are prototypes of temples or mandapas, assembled from stone blocks, while others are complete monuments in various designs, including the Phamsana style. Two notable temple groups in this style each feature a triple vimana with square sanctums connected to a shared square mandapa. Their pyramidal granite towers (shikaras) consist of eleven stacked, shrinking squares topped with a Deccan-style square kalasha finial. Both are Shiva temples with triple lingas. The diverse styles present, including those from the Chalukya and Rashtrakuta periods, suggest Hemakuta Hill may have served as a study center for experimenting with different Hindu temple designs. It may also have been the template for the original Virupaksha Temple.
Historical Significance
Several important inscriptions are found on Hemakuta Hill. One particularly significant inscription records that Kampila built a monument here in the early 14th century, linking Hampi with the Kampili kingdom and suggesting an association with the subsequent Vijayanagara Empire. Another similar monument dedicated to Narasimha, located east of Hampi, bears an inscription indicating its operation in 1379 CE.
Monolithic Ganesha Statues
Hemakuta Hill is also home to two impressive monolithic Ganesha statues:
Kadalekalu Ganesha Temple,
Located on the slopes of Hemakuta Hills, near the Sasivekalu Ganesha, stands the impressive Kadalekalu Ganesha Temple. This temple houses a colossal 4.5 meters (15 ft) tall monolithic statue of Lord Ganesha, carved from a single massive black stone. Its name, "Kadalekalu" (meaning Bengal Gram in Kannada), refers to the unique shape of Ganesha's belly. Despite some damage to its tusk and other parts, Ganesha's left hand, holding a rice cake for his trunk, remains intact; the idol is no longer worshipped.
Architecture and Views
The temple's open hall features unusually tall and slender granite pillars, a testament to the typical Vijayanagara architectural style. These cubical pillars are highly ornate, decorated with various mythological characters and themes. The hall leads to the inner sanctum, built around the giant statue.
Sasivekalu Ganesha:
Meaning "mustard seed-shaped belly," this 2.4-meter (7.9 ft)-high monolith is located near the Krishna Temple, southwest of Kadalekalu Ganesha. Also carved in-situ, it depicts Ganesha seated on his mother Parvati's lap, though she is only visible from the back. This monument is enclosed within an open-pillared mandapa, with its left hand and tusk showing some damage.
Statue Details and Significance
The Ganesha idol is depicted in a half-lotus posture (ardha padmasana), with its four arms holding a tusk, goad, noose, and a bowl of sweets. The deity's stomach, shaped like a mustard seed, gives the temple its name, as 'sasive' means mustard seed in Kannada. A snake is artfully tied around Ganesha's belly, a detail linked to a legend where Lord Ganesha used a snake to secure his stomach after excessive consumption to prevent it from bursting. The lower left hand and trunk of the statue show signs of damage, and due to the damaged trunk, the idol is no longer worshipped.
Hazare Rama Temple: A Royal Narrative in stone
The Hazara Rama Temple, also known as the Ramachandra Temple in inscriptions, is a significant early 15th-century temple located in the western part of Hampi's royal center. Attributed to Devaraya I, this temple was the ceremonial place of worship for the royal family and is dedicated to Rama, an avatar of Vishnu and the protagonist of the Hindu epic Ramayana.
Architectural and Artistic Highlights
This ruined temple complex is renowned for its thousands of intricate carvings, elaborate frescoes, and sprawling courtyard with gardens.
Outer Walls: The temple's outer walls feature parallel bands of artwork depicting the Hindu Mahanavami (Dasara) and Holi festival processions and celebrations. These friezes offer a vivid glimpse into Vijayanagara life: the lowest band shows marching elephants, followed by horses led by horsemen, then soldiers celebrated by the public, next dancers and musicians, and finally, a top layer depicting a procession of the general public. These depictions align with descriptions of festivals and processions found in the memoirs of Persian and Portuguese visitors to the Vijayanagara capital.
Garbhagriha of Hazara Rama Temple from the West part of the complex
Inner Walls: The inner walls of the temple are adorned with extensive friezes narrating the Hindu epic Ramayana. Some notable sculptures include:
Lord Rama killing the monkey king Vali
Sita giving a jewel to Hanuman for Rama
Sita requesting Rama to capture the golden deer (Maricha)
Rama killing the golden deer (Maricha)
Demon King Ravana fighting the divine bird Jatayu
Temple Interior: The temple features an entrance mandapa and a yajna ceremony hall with a specially designed ceiling to ventilate fumes and smoke. Inside the main mandapa are four intricately carved pillars in the Hoysala style. These carvings depict:
Vaishnavism: Rama, Lakshmana, Sita, and the story of Lava and Kusha (on the devi shrine)
Shaivism: Shiva-Parvati
Shaktism: Durga as Mahishasuramardini
Infant Krishna
While images are missing from the square sanctum, a smaller shrine within the complex features friezes illustrating legends of various Vishnu avatars.
Ramachandra Temple, Hampi: The Royal Private Chapel
The 15th-century Ramachandra Temple, dedicated to the divine hero-king Rama (an avatar of Vishnu), served as a private chapel for the Vijayanagara rulers within the heart of the royal area. This intimate temple reflects the deep reverence the Vijayanagara kings held for Rama as an ideal monarch.
Ramayana Connection and Symbolism
The rectangular enclosure at the Ramachandra temple depicts within horizontal bands processions of elephants, horses, armies, and dancers during the Mahanavami festival, in the city of Vijayanagara.
Left: the enclosure ; right: detail of the processions
Hampi's landscape itself is intimately linked to the Ramayana, the epic about Rama. It is believed to be Kishkindha, the monkey kingdom where Rama sought help from Hanuman and Sugriva in his quest to rescue his abducted wife, Sita. Images of Hanuman, revered for his service and loyalty to Rama and seen as an ideal of human devotion (bhakti), are ubiquitous throughout the capital, believed to be his birthplace.
The Vijayanagara kings likely viewed themselves as embodying the ideals of Rama. Constructing a temple dedicated to him in a landscape steeped in Ramayana mythology (unlike the pre-existing Virupaksha temple) may have been a powerful political statement, subtly aligning themselves with the divine hero-king and legitimizing their rule. Temples dedicated to Rama were relatively rare during this period, gaining popularity only later.
Architectural Narratives
The Ramachandra Temple's richly carved rectangular enclosure features horizontal bands depicting vibrant processions of elephants, horses, armies, and dancers, likely illustrating scenes from the grand Mahanavami festival.
More intimately, carved panels on both the inner compound wall and the temple's inner and outer walls vividly illustrate episodes from the Ramayana. For instance, sections of the inner wall appear to depict scenes from the Aranya Kanda ("forest chapter"), the third book of the epic, showcasing Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana during their exile. One particular panel strikingly portrays Rama aiming his bow at the demon Maricha, disguised as a golden deer.
Temple’s inner walls with episodes from the Ramayana depicted
Inside the temple, four pillars of polished black limestone are adorned with ornate sculptured blocks featuring bas-reliefs. These carvings primarily depict the many incarnations (avataras) of Vishnu, the Hindu god representing cosmic preservation. Vishnu's ten avatars, including Matsya (fish), Kurma (tortoise), Varaha (boar), Narasimha (half-man/half-lion), Vamana (dwarf), Parasurama (warrior), Rama (prince/king), Krishna, Buddha, and Kalki, illustrate his descents to Earth to defeat evil and restore cosmic order.
Kodandarama Temple and Riverside Monuments
The Kodandarama Temple complex is situated on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, north of the Achyutaraya Temple. It overlooks Chakratirtha, a sacred spot where the river turns north towards the Himalayas. The holy river banks feature Vijayanagara-era ghats and mandapa facilities for bathing.
Kodandarama Temple
In front of the temple stands a dipa stambha (lighting pillar) beneath a Pipal tree. The temple's sanctum is dedicated to Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, and Hanuman.
Riverside Monuments and Reliefs
Continuing north from the Kodandarama Temple towards Kotitirtha, the riverside is dotted with numerous smaller shrines dedicated to deities such as Vitthala, Anjaneya, Shiva, and others.
Notable rock carvings along the river face include:
Anantashayana Vishnu: A reclining Vishnu, depicting the creation of the cosmic cycle (Ranganatha).
Narasimha and Prahlada legends: Friezes narrating stories of Narasimha, Vishnu's man-lion avatar, and his devotee Prahlada.
Twenty-four Avatars of Vishnu: Depictions of Vishnu's twenty-four avatars as per the Puranic tradition of Vaishnavism.
1,008 Lingas: A rock near the river carved with 1,008 Shiva lingas, significant to Shaivism.
The Pattabhirama Temple Complex, Hampi: A Suburban Masterpiece
The Pattabhirama Temple Complex, located in the southern suburban center of Hampi, approximately 500 meters northeast of the ASI Hampi Museum, was once the vibrant nucleus of economic and cultural activity in this area. Also known as Varadevi Ammana Pattana, this grand complex was likely constructed in the early 16th century and dedicated to Rama, an avatar of Vishnu.
Architectural Layout and Features
The temple is situated at the heart of a massive rectangular walled complex, a testament to Vijayanagara's grand scale. The complex is accessible through four entry towers (gopurams), one on each side, though they are now largely in ruins. The eastern gopuram, likely the primary entrance, suggests it once had six tiers, with a brick superstructure atop granite lower portions. While the terracotta images typical of such towers are missing, the intricate details on the granite base, including the Crescent-Boar-Dagger emblem of the Vijayanagara kings, remain visible.
Inside the enclosure, a pillared walkway runs along the inner side of the compound wall, encircling a paved courtyard (though many granite slabs are now missing). The main temple structure, facing east, features axial mandapas and a 64-pillared (8x8 square) and roofed mandapa in front of the sanctum.
Halls and Shrines
The complex includes a notable 100-pillared hall attached to the southern wall, believed to have served as a feeding hall. Its pillars are adorned with diverse reliefs depicting Hindu deities, scenes from sacred texts, and postures like yoga and namaste.
To the southeast of the compound lies the divine marriage hall (kalyana mandapa), where pillars are intricately carved with fantastical Yali images—mythical creatures often depicted as protectors. Additionally, an ardha-mandapa hall forms a covered pradakshina patha (circumambulatory passage) around the temple sanctum and antarala space. Both these pillars and the temple walls feature beautiful sculptures of various deities.
Within the compound, a smaller shrine, possibly dedicated to Goddess Sita, is also present, though like the main temple, it currently lacks idols.
Surrounding Complex and Current State
A tall tower at the east end of the compound wall opens to a wide chariot street, now largely inaccessible and used by local farmers. Further east of this street is an elaborate temple tank, which requires a short walk along the main road to reach.
Despite the absence of idols and its current deserted appearance, the Pattabhirama Temple remains one of Hampi's largest and most beautiful temples. Its serene atmosphere and splendid architecture continue to captivate visitors, offering a glimpse into its past grandeur and the unique charm it exudes.
Hampi's Water Infrastructure: Stepped Tanks
Hampi, the erstwhile capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, is renowned for its extensive and ingenious water infrastructure, a vital component of its urban planning and religious life. Among these structures are the Stepped Tanks, known by various regional names like kalyani, pushkarni, irtha, pukhuri, Talab, etc. These water bodies, often attached to temples, served multiple purposes, from ritual cleansing to public utility.
The Stepped Tank: A Marvel of Engineering
Located near the Mahanavami Dibba in the royal center, the Square Stepped Tank is a prime example of Vijayanagara's sophisticated hydraulic engineering. This square-shaped tank features multiple tiers of steps crafted from finely finished black schist stone, forming a semi-pyramidal configuration that allowed easy access to the water. The precision of its construction is evident in the individual mason marks, numerals, and Kannada letters (such as 'u' for Uttara/North, 'da' for Dakshina/South, etc.) on each stone block, indicating a pre-planned assembly. The tank comprises one hundred steps, with each of its five tiers having diminishing lengths as they descend, creating a visually striking and geometrically precise structure. Stone slabs at the base served to purify the water.
Fed by an aqueduct system from the Tungabhadra River, the tank's primary purpose is believed to have been for royal religious ceremonies, including ritual bathing and the immersion of deity idols during festivals like Ganesh Chaturthi. While its exact use remains debated, its significance as a public utility and a venue for annual boat festivals, where images of gods and goddesses were paraded, is well-documented.
Broader Water Infrastructure of Hampi
The Vijayanagara Empire developed an extensive network of water management systems throughout Hampi. Beyond these prominent examples, archaeological excavations in the 1980s and 1990s revealed numerous wells, cisterns, aqueducts, and drainage channels across the city and its suburbs. Structures like the Manmatha tank near the Virupaksha temple, though predating the Vijayanagara period (circa 9th century, upgraded in 1199 CE), were integrated into the empire's water management, with additions like a Durga shrine and artwork from the 13th century. This comprehensive infrastructure supported various needs, including domestic use, irrigation in agricultural areas like Daroji valley, and rituals, ensuring a thriving metropolis.
Even today, these ancient water structures, particularly the Stepped Tank, remain a primary attraction for tourists exploring the ruins of the Vijayanagara Empire, offering a glimpse into the advanced engineering and cultural practices of a bygone era.
The Enigmatic Underground Shiva Temple of Hampi
The Prasanna Virupaksha Temple, popularly known as the Underground Shiva Temple, is one of Hampi's oldest and most intriguing architectural marvels. Built during the Vijayanagara Empire, this subterranean shrine offers a unique glimpse into the spiritual and architectural brilliance of the era. Located near the Noblemen's Quarters and the Hampi bus stand, its distinctive setting sets it apart from other temples in the ruined city.
A Glimpse into History
Dating back to the 14th century CE, the Prasanna Virupaksha Temple is a testament to the Vijayanagara Empire's grandeur. Dedicated to Prasanna Virupaksha, an avatar of Lord Shiva, the temple was constructed in various phases, showcasing the evolving architectural styles of the period.
Remarkably, this temple remained buried for over four centuries before its rediscovery in the 1980s. Its proximity to the Noblemen's Quarters suggests it might have served as a private place of worship for the Vijayanagara royal family.
An inscription from 1513 CE, found on a slab in an ornate mandapa outside the enclosure wall, records significant donations by the Vijayanagara ruler Krishnadevaraya for the temple's upkeep. This highlights the temple's importance and patronage during his reign.
Why "Underground"?
The most striking feature of the Prasanna Virupaksha Temple is its subterranean location. The main structure of the temple lies several meters below the current ground level, with its roof aligning with the surrounding terrain. The exact reason for this unusual placement remains unknown.
Adding to its mystique, the temple's inner sanctum often remains submerged under stagnant water throughout the year, particularly during the monsoon season (June to August). This isn't due to a mystical spring but rather the temple's low elevation and the absence of an efficient drainage system, causing it to act as a natural collection point for rainwater. While the water is considered sacred by locals, it can restrict access to certain parts of the temple, especially during heavy rainfall. During dry months, the water gradually evaporates or seeps into the ground.
Architectural Highlights
The temple complex, primarily built in the Vijayanagara style, is characterized by its simplicity and elegant design. The main temple, facing east, incorporates essential elements such as a garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum), an antarala (antechamber), a pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory passage), a sabha mandapa or ranga mandapa (pillared hall), a mahamandapa (large pillared hall), and a pillared porch. The complex is enclosed by a large courtyard featuring a water canal.
Unlike other Vijayanagara temples known for their elaborate gopuras, the Underground Shiva Temple features a unique flat-roofed main tower that serves as its entrance. Visitors descend a flight of stairs from this entrance, leading them into the cooler depths of the temple.
The temple also houses additional garbhagrihas and subsidiary shrines, enhancing the complex's spatial arrangement. Notably, the pillars within the temple are simple and austere, contrasting with the intricately carved pillars often seen in other Hampi temples. A dhwaja stambha (flagpole) protrudes through the rooftop of the frontal mantapa.
Present Condition
Today, the Prasanna Virupaksha Temple is in a state of disrepair, reflecting the general dilapidation seen across many Hampi monuments. While the inner sanctum once housed a Shiva idol, only an empty pedestal remains. The plain stone pillars further emphasize the lack of ornamental carvings. Despite its condition, exploring this unique, water-filled temple, often wading through knee-deep water to reach the inner sanctum, offers a thrilling and unforgettable experience. The inner sanctum is dimly lit and has become home to bats.
Ugra Narasimha Temple, Hampi: A Colossal Icon
Also known as the Lakshmi Narasimha Temple, this shrine in Hampi, Karnataka, houses one of the largest monolithic sculptures in the region. The towering statue depicts Lord Narasimha, the fierce half-man, half-lion avatar of Vishnu, seated in a yogic posture on the coils of a multi-headed serpent. The term Ugra, meaning "fierce," reflects the deity’s intense expression and bulging eyes.
Location and Historical Context
Situated south of the Hemakuta group of temples, the statue was commissioned in 1528 CE during the reign of Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire. Originally, it included a smaller figure of Goddess Lakshmi seated on Narasimha’s lap, making it a composite Lakshmi Narasimha sculpture. This reflected the Tuluva Dynasty's deep devotion to Narasimha, a key Vaishnavite protector of the empire, especially revered by the Madhava sect during Krishnadevaraya’s rule.
The statue was severely damaged in 1565 CE during the Battle of Talikota, when the Deccan Sultanates sacked Vijayanagara. Narasimha’s limbs were broken, and the figure of Lakshmi was dislodged—only her hand remains on the statue’s back today. The damaged idol is preserved in the Archaeological Museum at Kamalapura.
Though often attributed to religious iconoclasm, recent scholarship suggests the destruction may have been politically motivated, targeting symbols of Tuluva authority rather than faith alone—a common practice in the era’s power struggles.
Architectural Features and Symbolism
Carved from a single boulder, the 6.7-meter-tall Ugra Narasimha is the largest statue in Hampi. It portrays Narasimha with bulging eyes and a gaping mouth, framed by a prabhavali arch crowned with a kirtimukha (face of glory). He sits atop three coils of the serpent Adishesha, whose seven hoods form a protective canopy. This iconography, originally paired with the figure of Lakshmi, reflects his association with Lord Vishnu. As per Hindu tradition, the statue once had four arms holding a conch (shankha), discus (chakra), mace (gada), and lotus (padma).
Unlike many temples in Hampi, this shrine lacks a grand gopuram or ornate pillars. It consists of four enclosing walls and an open entrance. The original roof is now lost, exposing the sculpture to weathering over time. A small shrine behind the statue is dedicated to Narasimha.
The statue’s massive scale and fierce expression embodied divine protection and projected the might of the Vijayanagara Empire.
The Hanuman Temple: A Sacred Summit in Hampi
Perched atop Anjanadri Hill, the Hanuman Temple, also known as the Monkey Temple, is a profoundly significant pilgrimage site for Hindus. This pristine whitewashed structure, featuring a pyramid-designed roof culminating in a small red dome and marked by a distinct, fluttering red flag visible from a distance, exudes an aura of devotion that has permeated this sacred space for over five centuries.
A Shrine to Devotion and Legend
The humble temple houses a carved image of Lord Hanuman on a rock, alongside a modest shrine dedicated to Lord Rama and his consort Sita. Devotees are drawn to this simple yet spiritually charged site year-round, seeking solace and connection with the revered deity.
The establishment of this temple is attributed to Sri Vyasaraja, the esteemed Rajaguru of the Vijayanagara Kingdom and a luminary in Dwaita philosophy. His legacy is deeply intertwined with this sacred ground. Legend recounts that for twelve consecutive days, Sri Vyasaraja’s charcoal sketches of Lord Hanuman on the ancient rocks of Hampi mysteriously vanished. It was only after his humble plea that Lord Hanuman appeared before him on the twelfth day, blessing his unwavering devotion. This temple is one of 732 sanctuaries consecrated by Sri Vyasaraja, standing as a tribute to moments when gods and mortals communed. Another popular legend suggests that Lord Rama and Lord Hanuman may have first met on this very hill.
The Yantrodharaka Hanuman Stotram
Within this sacred realm, visitors can behold the Yantrodharaka Hanuman Stotram. This grand, 8-foot-tall depiction of Lord Hanuman is immortalised upon a single stone boulder. It features the deity adorned with hexagonal amulets and encircled by twelve monkey idols, each symbolising a day of devout prayer. This immersive design serves as a powerful symbol of unyielding devotion and the spiritual blessings sought by pilgrims.
Ganagitti Temple: A Glimpse into Hampi's Jain Heritage
Located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, along the Kampli road leading to Bhima’s Gate, stands the Ganagitti Temple, also known as the Kunthunatha Jaina Temple. This sacred site is dedicated to Lord Kunthunatha, the 17th Tirthankara of Jainism, a liberated soul who attained Siddha by eradicating all karma. The temple's intriguing moniker, "The Oil-Woman Temple," or Ganigitti Temple, has an unknown origin.
History and Significance
Dating back to 1386 AD, Ganagitti Temple is one of the oldest Jain temples in the region, built during the early reign of the Vijayanagara Empire under King Harihara II. It was commissioned by Iruguppa Daṇḍanāyaka (Iruga), a minister of Bukkarāya II. Iruga, also renowned for his Sanskrit lexicographical work 'Nanartharatnamala,' ensured that both his literary composition and this temple held significant historical importance. Lord Kunthunatha, born to King Surya and Queen Shridevi of the Ikshvaku dynasty in Hastinapur, achieved Moksha atop Mount Shikharji at the remarkable age of 95,000 years.
Architectural Highlights
The Ganagitti Temple showcases a simple yet lovely stone structure, characteristic of early Vijayanagara architecture. While primarily built in the Vijayanagara style, it incorporates design elements from the late Chalukya era. Jain temples are typically known for their simplicity, and Ganagitti adheres to this principle.
The temple features two halls – the antarala ardha mantapa and maha mantapa – leading to the inner sanctum, the garbha griha. A prominent mana-stambha (monolithic lamp post) stands near the temple's portico, bearing an inscription that credits Iruguppa Daṇḍanāyaka with its construction during Harihara II's reign.
an ancient slab with inscriptions describing the circumstance of the temple's commissioning.
Although the sanctorum no longer houses an idol, the original stone pedestal remains. However, a stucco image of a Jain saint adorns the temple's parapet, a typical feature of early Vijayanagara architecture. Footprints, believed to be those of a Tirthankara, are visible on platforms within the temple, alongside various Jain sculptures. The superstructure is a six-tiered stepped pyramid of plain horizontal stone slabs.
Bhima's Gateway: A Fortified Marvel of Vijayanagara Architecture
The Bhima's Gateway, a formidable arch complex, stands as a testament to Vijayanagara's military prowess. Located between the Ganagitti Jain Temple and the Domed Gate, it served as a crucial entry point to the citadel and is a short detour on the way to the Vittala Temple. This gateway has admirably withstood the test of time, proving its robust construction.
History and Significance
This gateway is a quintessential example of Vijayanagara military architecture and a prime illustration of their sophisticated defense system, characterized by massive walls and imposing gateways. Many such gateways incorporated shrines featuring carvings or sculptures of deities like Lord Hanuman and Bhima, both revered as symbols of valor and strength.
The gateway likely derives its name from these carvings, particularly the prominent depiction of Bhima, the strongest of the Pandava brothers from the Mahabharata epic. This association underscores the gateway's own reputation as one of the strongest in the Vijayanagara Empire. Notable carvings include an impressive depiction of Bhima holding the Saugandhika flower, along with murals of Draupadi tying her hair and the slaying of Kichaka for his attempted molestation of Draupadi. The lotus bud-tipped brackets supporting the lintel are also a noteworthy architectural detail.
Architectural Design
The gateway's architecture epitomizes the strategic brilliance of Vijayanagara's military engineering. Its most striking feature is a unique, complex design that prevents a straight entry. Visitors must navigate a series of turns—right, left, and then another left—around a massive wall-like obstruction to reach the northern exit. This intricate, non-linear path was deliberately crafted to create blind spots for invading armies, making rapid passage incredibly difficult. With defenders positioned above, enemies were left disoriented and vulnerable to surprise attacks. This design also posed a significant challenge for elephant-mounted forces, which struggled to execute such quick maneuvers within the tight turns.
Palaces and Courtly Architecture
While no royal palace structures from the Vijayanagara Empire have survived intact, archaeological excavations at Hampi offer significant insights into their design and features.
Palace Design and Materials
Vijayanagara palaces were typically set within their own compounds, defined by high, tapering walls of stone or layered earth. Access involved a series of courts with winding passageways, ensuring multiple changes in direction. All palaces faced either east or north, with larger complexes often featuring symmetrical side extensions.
These grand structures were built on raised granite platforms, adorned with multi-tiered mouldings and intricately decorated friezes. Common decorative motifs included floral patterns, Kirtimukha (demon faces), geese, elephants, and occasionally human figures. Evidence from excavations, such as ash deposits, suggests that internal pillars, beams, and rafters were constructed from wood. Roofs were made of brick or lime concrete, with copper and ivory used for finials. Palaces often had multiple levels, with staircases flanked by balustrades carved with yali (mythical beasts) or elephant sculptures—a decorative element also found at temple entrances. Palace complexes commonly included wells, shrines, and decorative water tanks featuring spouts like carved Nandi torsos.
Indo-Islamic Influence and Legacy
The empire's courtly architecture prominently displays secular styles with notable Islamic influences, reflecting a highly evolved multi-religious and multi-ethnic society. Iconic examples include the Lotus Mahal, Elephant Stables, and various watch towers. These structures, built with mortar mixed with stone rubble, feature distinctive arches, domes, and vaults, demonstrating a creative interaction between Hindu and Muslim architectural traditions despite political conflicts. This blend, evident in structures like the Queen's Bath and Elephant Stables, evolved over 200 years of continuous building activity, contributing to Hampi's metropolitan grandeur as lauded by foreign travelers.
The impact of this unique architectural style persisted well into the 17th century. Successor Nayaka kingdoms continued to adopt Vijayanagara hallmarks, such as pillars adorned with hippogryphs, and granite remained the dominant building material. The devastating Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE led to extensive destruction of Hampi's physical fabric, yet the architectural legacy of Vijayanagara continues to inspire.
The Royal Centre: A Realm of Refinement
Distinct from the rugged terrain around Hampi Bazaar, the Royal Centre showcases a remarkable transformation of the landscape. Here, countless rounded boulders were meticulously repurposed to construct impressive stone walls, shaping a refined urban core. Within these various enclosures lie many of Hampi's key attractions, including the notable Zenana Enclosure and the majestic Elephant Stables, offering a glimpse into the empire's regal life.
Royal Centre: Where Grandeur Took Shape
Step into the Royal Centre and experience a dramatic shift from Hampi's natural boulder-strewn surroundings. This area was painstakingly sculpted by human hands, with vast quantities of local stone transformed into elegant walls and grand compounds. It's home to some of Hampi's most iconic sites, such as the secluded Zenana Enclosure and the magnificent Elephant Stables, providing a concentrated view of the Vijayanagara Empire's imperial splendor.
Domed Gateway: A Glimpse into Indo-Islamic Fusion
The Domed Gateway, the sole surviving gateway to Hampi's citadel, stands as a testament to the Vijayanagara Empire's grandeur. Though it no longer functions as an active entry point, its impressive size and proximity to the Royal Center highlight its historical importance. This well-preserved, rectangular structure, breaking the city's ancient fortifications, faces east—an auspicious direction in Hindu tradition.
Unique Architecture and Features
Standing approximately 18 meters high, the Domed Gateway showcases a distinctive Indo-Islamic architectural style, setting it apart from most other structures in Hampi that predominantly exhibit the Vijayanagara style. Its arches and prominent dome are characteristic of Islamic design, contrasting with gateways like Bhima's Gate but sharing similarities with the Talarigatta Gate.
The gateway features well-crafted arches and a large dome, from which it derives its name. Adjoining the structure are guard rooms, once used by royal guards to maintain vigil near the Royal Center. Notably, a small guard's room contains a carving of the Hindu deity Lord Hanuman, while white and ochre "Naama" markings on the walls indicate the presence of an active temple within.
Interior and Surroundings
The Domed Gateway, a main entrance to the city of Vijayanagara, provided access from the east and north. Its square entrance is defined by four massive arches, ornamented with lime mortar. Above the arches are a square band, a semi-circular section, and finally, a half-spherical dome. The gateway's massive walls are adorned with bas-relief decorations of a fish, a snake, and an elephant, alongside carvings of Ganesha, Hanuman, and a mythical fish-lion creature.
Like many large gateways, it incorporates a bent path, designed to slow down any attempted incursions. During the Vijayanagara period, travelers from the east would pass through the Penukonda Gateway, then the Domed Gateway, and finally Bhima's Gateway to reach the city.
An Anjaneya Temple is constructed within the gateway, housing a six-foot tall bas-relief sculpture of Anjaneya in its garbhagriha. This simple, semi-open temple features four pillars clearly of Vijayanagara design, possibly consecrated by Vyasaraja, the influential Madhwa philosopher. Inside a guard room, you'll find an image of Hanuman, while other walls bear carvings of a Shiva linga, Nandi, and Parvati. The passage widens into a spacious yard, where a shrine dedicated to Shivalinga is found on the eastern wall. A platform suggests a planned temple or pillared hall that was never completed. Close to the southern wall lies a Yagna Kunda, a sacred pit for fire offerings, similar to one found at Bhima's Gateway. A large broken platform and a decapitated Nandi statue also hint at the former presence of a small temple, possibly for fire rituals. The detailed craftsmanship on the main arch leading into the complex remains remarkably well-preserved.
Talarighatta Gate: The Historic Tollway
The Talarighatta Gate stands as a two-storeyed entry point into Hampi from the direction of Kamalapura. Its name suggests its historic function as a toll gate (Talarighatta means 'toll gate'). Despite partial damage, this gateway remains an imposing structure, echoing its past role in regulating access to the city.
The King's Balance (Tulapurushandana)
Near the Vittala Temple stands the King's Balance, also known as Tulapurushandana, a unique archway-like structure about five meters tall. This stone-carved monument features a 12-foot-long heavy stone beam with three hoops on its underside, believed to have supported a large balance.
This site highlights the immense wealth and generosity of the Vijayanagara kings. During significant occasions like coronations, Dussehra, and lunar or solar eclipses, the king would ritually weigh himself against gold, precious stones, or gems. These riches were then distributed as charity, primarily to temple priests. An image of a king, thought to be Krishnadevaraya, and his wives is carved on one of the pillars. This ancient "Tula Bhara" weighing procedure is a practice still observed in many temples today.
Pavilions
Along the one-mile road leading to the temple, a series of pavilions marks what was once the bustling heart of Vijayanagara's trade. This thriving marketplace was a hub for textiles, spices, gold, and gemstones, and also housed the city's elite. Foreign travelers and traders frequently noted the abundance of merchants and affluent residents, marveling at the variety and quality of goods that flowed into this cosmopolitan metropolis, a testament to the imperial capital's lucrative international trade.
Mahanavami Platform: The Great Platform
The Mahanavami Platform, also known as the "Great Platform," "Audience Hall," or "Dasara Dibba," is the dominant monument within Hampi's royal center. This massive stone pedestal, standing 12 meters high with a base measuring 35 meters and a top of 25 meters, is situated within a 7.5-hectare (19-acre) enclosure at one of the royal center's highest points.
A Symbol of Victory and Celebration
Built by King Krishnadevaraya after his conquest of the Udayagiri kingdom (modern-day Odisha), the platform symbolizes his victory and served as a ceremonial structure. Foreign visitors to Vijayanagara often referenced it, some calling it the "House of Victory." It was here that King Krishnadevaraya would observe the grand festivities, including wrestling, aquatics, musical performances, and religious rites associated with the Navaratri celebrations. Mahanavami, the last day of Navaratri, commemorates Goddess Durga's victory over the buffalo-demon Mahishasura. Vijayanagara rulers historically worshipped Durga for strength before military campaigns, with the platform's reliefs even depicting the king inspecting his army.
Architectural Features and Royal Life Depictions
The largest monument in this complex features three ascending square stages, culminating in a large square platform that likely supported a wooden mandapa (pavilion), which was destroyed during Hampi's decline. Horizontal bands of low-relief friezes surround this multi-story stone stage, offering a visual catalog of 14th-century royal life. These carvings depict diverse scenes, including war animal processions, hunting, warriors in martial arts, women performing folk dances with sticks, and musicians.
The two lower granite levels showcase lines of marching animals like elephants, horses, and camels. Reliefs on the south side portray musicians and dancers, including female stick-dancers. The third level features a battle procession, couples, and scenes of common citizens celebrating Holi (Vasantotsava) by throwing water.
Surrounding Complex
Near the Great Platform, an audience hall, also likely with a destroyed wooden pavilion, is evidenced by 100 stone stubs. South of the platform, an aqueduct leads water to a large, symmetrical, stepped granite tank, excavated in the 1980s. The complex also includes another large water pool, possibly for water sports, a garden, and various mandapas. A ruined temple-like monument is located near the step tank. An underground chamber, set slightly apart from the main stage, is believed to have been used for secret discussions.
Fountains and Community Kitchens
Many of Hampi's major temples incorporated kitchens and large feeding halls. Additionally, the city hosted dedicated public Bhojana shalas (community kitchens). An example near an octagonal fountain in the royal center's south features rock-carved thali (dishes) arranged along a water channel, epigraphically identified as an utada kaluve ("canal connected with eating").
Elephant Stables: A Royal Enclosure
The image presents a panoramic view of the Elephant Stables in Hampi, capturing the full length of this grand structure. The stables consist of a series of interconnected domed chambers, each adorned with intricate Indo-Islamic architectural elements. This wide perspective emphasizes the symmetry and scale of the building, reflecting the importance of housing royal elephants in the Vijayanagara Empire. The combination of detailed stonework and expansive design highlights the stables' significance within the historical landscape of Hampi.
The Elephant Stables, or Gajashala, are a prominent and remarkably well-preserved structure in Hampi, located just east of the Royal Enclosure. This unique edifice, a testament to the ancient rulers' fascination with elephants, housed the ceremonial elephants of the Vijayanagara royalty.
Architecture and Design
The stables comprise eleven square chambers aligned north-south, all featuring domes of the same size but varied designs. Notably, the central dome is larger than the others. While most domes exhibit an Islamic architectural style, the damaged upper chamber of the central stable uniquely incorporates Hindu architectural elements, showcasing a fascinating Indo-Islamic blend. The chambers are connected by a long corridor, each with arched openings and decorated with carvings of elephants and other animals. Hooks on the roof were used to secure the elephants. A staircase in the middle leads to the roof, and a now-bricked-up opening likely provided mahouts with back access.
The image features a close-up view of the Elephant Stables in Hampi, highlighting the intricate design and craftsmanship of this monumental structure. The arched doorways and domed chambers are clearly visible, reflecting the Indo-Islamic architectural influence of the Vijayanagara Empire. Detailed stonework and symmetrical elements emphasize the stables' functional yet grand design. This close-up offers a deeper appreciation of the stables' significance in housing royal elephants, showcasing the blend of utility and elegance in the complex.
Historical Significance
Unlike many other structures in Hampi, the Elephant Stables largely survived the Mughal attacks, remaining largely intact and providing a magnificent glimpse into the past. The open space in front of the stables is speculated to have served as a parade ground for these majestic creatures.
Lotus Mahal: A Fusion of Architectures
The adjacent image presents a flat elevation close-up of the Lotus Mahal in Hampi, showcasing its intricate architectural details. This view highlights the Mahal's distinctive lotus motifs, elegant arches, and ornate stonework, reflecting the artistry of the Vijayanagara Empire. The careful craftsmanship is evident in the decorative elements that adorn the façade, emphasizing its historical significance. This close-up perspective allows for an appreciation of the architectural finesse that characterizes this iconic structure.
The Lotus Mahal, also known as Kamal Mahal or Chitragani Mahal, is a remarkable two-story pavilion located within Hampi's Zenana Enclosure, an area designated for royal women; it likely served as a reception or meeting hall for the emperor and his advisors. This stunning structure, one of the few that survived the city's plunder, combines elements of Hindu temple architecture with Islamic styles. Entry is not permitted inside.
Architectural Harmony
The Mahal's design is a testament to its unique fusion. Its symmetrical, square Hindu mandala basement and pyramidal towers reflect traditional temple architecture, while its lobed arches, vaults, and domes are distinctly Indo-Islamic. The central dome evokes an open lotus bud, with passages, walkways, and balconies resembling its petals. Built of lime mortar and brick, and supported by over 20 pillars, the Lotus Mahal features an open ground floor with tall arches and an upper floor with arched windows. It boasts intricate carvings and numerous balconies that offer panoramic views.
Cultural Significance & Unclear Purpose
The blend of Islamic and Indic temple styles, evident in its cusped arches, varied vaults, and decorative motifs, showcases a vibrant cultural exchange between Turko-Persian and Indic traditions. Unlike other structures in Hampi's Muslim quarters, the Lotus Mahal was not built with Muslim patronage, highlighting the assimilative approach of the Vijayanagara Hindu rulers. Without inscriptions or epigraphs, its exact function remains a subject of speculation, though it's often theorized as a council hall or reception area for the emperor and his advisors.
The Octagonal Bath
Just a short walk from the Queen's Bath, and en route to the Chandrashekara and Saraswathi temples, you'll find the Octagonal Bath. This structure isn't as grand as the Queen's Bath and likely served as a bathing area for commoners. Unlike its more elaborate counterpart, the Octagonal Bath is an open-air structure supported by columns, featuring a central platform. It appears largely overlooked and isn't frequently visited by travelers.
Hampi Bazaar
Adjacent to the Virupaksha Temple and a convenient parking area, Hampi Bazaar stretches for kilometers, with its eastern end at the foot of Matanga Hill. This historic market is a unique Hampi attraction, easily explored by bicycle or a 30-minute walk.
Historical Significance
The bazaar's dilapidated pillars line the path towards the Monolithic Nandi and Virupaksha Temple. In its prime during the Vijayanagara period, it was a bustling hub selling both local and imported goods to all, with tales of pearls and precious stones openly traded. Hampi Bazaar also hosted vibrant cultural events, including fairs, festivals, and musical performances.
Modern Day
Today, the bazaar's remains are meticulously excavated and maintained as part of this Heritage Site, offering visitors a thought-provoking experience. Designed in the ancient Dravidian style, it's an excellent spot for shopping, especially for replicas of Hampi's ruins and other interesting collectibles. It remains a primary draw for tourists visiting the nearby Virupaksha Temple.
Nobleman's Quarters
Adjacent to the Underground Shiva temple are the remains of stone palaces, believed to be the residences of Krishnadevaraya's royal court, thus named Nobleman's Quarters. This area was razed by the Deccan Sultanate, leaving mostly rectangular houses separated by common walls. A good vantage point is a nearby tall rock or the more distant Mohammadan Watch Tower.
Zenana Enclosure: A Royal Sanctuary
The Zenana Enclosure served as a secluded and highly guarded area exclusively for the royal women. This compound once housed the Queen's Palace, a Water Pavilion, the Treasury Building, and the iconic Lotus Mahal.
A section of Zenana enclosure
Key Structures within the Enclosure
The enclosure is fortified by three Indo-Islamic style watchtowers, with the two-storied tower offering views stretching to the Elephant Stables located behind the enclosure. The Queen's Palace itself is largely in ruins, with only a three-tiered base remaining today. Opposite the palace stands the Water Pavilion, centrally located within a shallow pool. In contrast to these more elaborate structures, the Treasury Building within the enclosure appears relatively simple.
Watch tower
Water Infrastructure and Engineering
The Vijayanagara Empire developed an extensive and sophisticated water infrastructure to support its vast capital and surrounding areas. This network not only provided fresh water for various uses but also managed overflows and drainage.
The Queen's Bath (Square Water Pavilion)
The Queen's Bath, also known as the Square Water Pavilion, is a remarkable example of the Vijayanagara Empire's advanced hydraulic engineering and distinctive Indo-Saracenic architectural style. Located near the Royal Enclosure, this structure features a large, open-to-the-sky bathing pond within an ornate, pillared, and vaulted bay.
Despite its modern name, it's likely the bath served as a public facility, possibly for men and travelers, rather than exclusively for royalty. Its intricate carvings, central ceremonial platform, and surrounding balconies suggest a significant public function. Water was channeled directly from the Tungabhadra River to fill the bath, and a sophisticated drainage system managed overflows and washed water. Sockets at the pool's base indicate a possible former covering.
Architecturally, the Queen's Bath beautifully fuses Hindu and Islamic elements, showcasing the period's cosmopolitan influences. Its plain exterior conceals an elaborate, open-air interior adorned with multi-lobed arched doorways, pointed arches, plaster-decorated domes, and corridors with projecting balconies. This blend of Islamic forms with Hindu elements, such as lotus-bud brackets, epitomizes the unique architectural idiom of Vijayanagara.
Extensive Water Systems
Beyond the Queen's Bath, Hampi's monuments include:
Aqueducts and Channels: These structures efficiently transported water to tanks and various parts of the city, along with drains for overflow management.
Tanks: Numerous tanks, like the Manmatha tank near the Virupaksha temple (dating back to the 9th century and upgraded by Vijayanagara rulers), served as public utilities and possibly for royal ceremonies. A large, square-stepped tank fed by an aqueduct was also discovered near the Mahanavami platform.
Wells and Cisterns: Archaeological excavations have revealed 23 wells and cisterns across the Hampi-Vijayanagara metropolis and its suburbs, strategically located along roadsides, near temples, in residential areas, and for urban irrigation.
These extensive water structures in Hampi, and further afield in areas like Daroji valley, ensured water provision for travelers, rituals, domestic consumption, and agricultural needs, demonstrating the empire's foresight in urban planning and resource management.
Archaeological Museum: A Gateway to Hampi's Past
To truly grasp the grandeur of Hampi, your visit should ideally begin at the Archaeological Museum, a pivotal institution curated by the Archaeological Survey of India. This museum acts as a crucial gateway, offering an essential overview of the Vijayanagara Empire's history and its impressive scale. As you wander through the exhibits, you'll uncover the past through ancient sculptures, historical artifacts, and even 16th-century weaponry. The museum provides a concise yet profound introduction to Hampi's illustrious history, making it an indispensable first stop for anyone eager to comprehend the magnificence of this ancient city."
The museum is thoughtfully organized into four distinct sections, each offering a unique glimpse into Hampi's heritage:
The first section features a detailed model of Hampi, providing visitors with a helpful overview of the site's layout.
The second section showcases an impressive collection of sculptures and idols recovered from the Hampi ruins.
The third section displays various tools, arms, and ammunition, offering insight into the daily life and warfare of the era.
Finally, the fourth section houses artifacts spanning both prehistoric and post-historic periods, highlighting the continuous human presence in the region.
"As the setting sun paints Hampi’s ruins in gold, we’re reminded that empires may fade, but their light lingers—etched in stone, whispered in legends, and alive in the timeless pulse of a land where gods and kings once walked."
Echoes of a Golden Age
Hampi is not merely a relic; it is a mirror reflecting the zenith of medieval Indian civilization. The Vijayanagara Empire’s mastery of governance, art, and engineering—evident in its sprawling aqueducts, monolithic sculptures, and vibrant murals—reveals a society that harmonized spirituality with sophistication. Its decline was abrupt, but its influence seeped into the Nayaka kingdoms and beyond, shaping South India’s identity. As travelers clamber over its boulders and marvel at the Vitthala Temple’s musical pillars, Hampi challenges us to imagine the splendor of an empire that once rivaled Beijing—and to question what of our own world might one day become archaeology.
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